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Kendall & Kendall

Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Understanding and
Modeling Organizational
Systems
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Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Learning Objectives
Understand that organizations and their
members are systems and that analysts
need to take a systems perspective.
Depict systems graphically using contextlevel data flow diagrams, and entityrelationship models, use cases, and use
case scenarios.
Recognize that different levels of
management require different systems.
Comprehend that organizational culture
impacts the design of information systems.
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Three Main Forces Interacting

to Shape Organizations
Levels of management
Design of organizations
Organizational cultures

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Organizations Are Composed

of Interrelated Subsystems
Influenced by levels of management
decision makers that cut horizontally
across the organizational system
Operations
Middle management
Strategic management

Influenced by organizational cultures

and subcultures
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Major Topics
Organizations as systems
Depicting systems graphically
Data flow diagram
Entity-relationship model
Use case modeling

Levels of management
Organizational culture
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Organizations as Systems
Conceptualized as systems designed
to accomplish predetermined goals
and objectives
Composed of smaller, interrelated
systems serving specialized functions
Specialized functions are
reintegrated to form an effective
organizational whole
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Interrelatedness and
Independence of Systems
All systems and subsystems are
interrelated and interdependent
All systems process inputs from their
environments
All systems are contained by boundaries
separating them from their environments
System feedback for planning and control
An ideal system self-corrects or selfregulates itself.
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System Outputs Serve as Feedback that

Compares Performance with Goals (Figure
2.1)

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Organizational
Environments
Community

Physical location
Demographic profile (education, income)

Economic

Market factors
Competition

Political

State and local government

Legal

Federal, state, regional, local laws, and

guidelines

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Openness and Closedness

Open
Free flow of information
Output from one system becomes input
to another

Closed
Restricted access to information
Limited by numerous rules
Information only on a need to know
basis
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Virtual Organizations and

Virtual Teams
A virtual organization has parts of
the organization in different
physical locations
Computer networks and
communications technology are
used to bring virtual teams
together to work on projects
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Benefits of Virtual
Organizations and Teams
Possibility of reducing costs of
physical facilities
More rapid response to customer
needs
Helping virtual employees to fulfill
their familial obligations to children
or aging parents
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Taking a Systems
Perspective
Allows system analyst to understand
businesses before they begin their tasks
It is important that members of
subsystems realize that they are
interrelated with other subsystems
Problems occur when each manager
thinks that his/her department is the
most important
Bigger problems may occur when that
manager rises through the ranks
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Taking a Systems Perspective

(Figure 2.2)
Outputs from one
department serve as
inputs for another such
that subsystems are
interrelated.

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Perspective of Functional
Managers (Figure 2.3)

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Enterprise Resource
Planning
Enterprise Systems or Enterprise
Resource Planning (ERP) describes
an integrated organizational
information system
Software that helps the flow of
information between the functional
areas within the organization
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ERP and the Organization

ERP can affect every aspect of
the organization, including:
Design of employees work
Skills required for job competency
Strategic positioning of the company

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Issues to be Overcome for

ERP Success

Many issues must be overcome for the

ERP installation is to be declared a
success:

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User acceptance
Integration with legacy systems and the
supply chain
Upgrading functionality (and complexity) of
ERP modules
Reorganizing work life of users and decision
makers
Expanded reach across several organizations
Strategic repositioning of the company
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Depicting Systems
Graphically
Context-level data flow diagrams
Entity-relationship model
Use case modeling

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Context-Level Data Flow

Diagrams
Focus is on the data flowing into
and out of the system and the
processing of the data
Shows the scope of the system:
What is to be included in the system
The external entities are outside the
scope of the system
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The Basic Symbols of a Data

Flow Diagram (Figure 2.4)

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Airline Reservation System

(Figure 2.5)

A context-level data
flow diagram
for an airline
reservation system
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Entity-Relationship Model
Focus is on the entities and their
relationships within the
organizational system
Another way to show the scope of
a system

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Relationships
Relationships show how the
entities are connected
Three types of relationships:
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-many

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Entity-Relationship Example
(Figure 2.7)
An entityrelationship
diagram
showing a manyto-one
relationship

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Examples of Different Types of

Relationships in E-R Diagrams (Figure
2.8)

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Entities
Fundamental entity
Associative entity
Attributive entity

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Three Different Types of

Entities Used in E-R Diagrams
(Figure 2.9)

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Attributes
Data attributes may be added to
the diagram.
Patron

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Patron Name
Patron address
Patron phone
Patron credit card

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Creating EntityRelationship Diagrams

List the entities in the organization
Choose key entities to narrow the
scope of the problem
Identify what the primary entity
should be
Confirm the results of the above
through data gathering
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A More Complete E-R Diagram Showing

Data Attributes of the Entities (Figure
2.12 )

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Use Case Modeling

Describes what a system does
without describing how the system
does
A logical model of the system

Use case is a view of the system

requirements
Analyst works with business experts
to develop requirements
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Use Case Diagram

Actor
Refers to a particular role of a user of the
system
Similar to external entities; they exist outside of
the system

Use case symbols

An oval indicating the task of the use case

Connecting lines
Arrows and lines used to diagram behavioral
relationships
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Actor
Divided into two groups
Primary actors:
Supply data or receive information from the
system
Provide details on what the use case should
do

Supporting actors:
Help to keep the system running or provide
help
The people who run the help desk, the
analysts, programmers, and so on
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A Use Case Always Provides

Three Things
An actor that initiates an event
The event that triggers a use case
The use case that performs the
actions triggered by the event

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Use Case Relations

Behavioral relationships
Communicates
Used to connect an actor to a use
case
Includes
Describes the situation in which a
use case contains behavior that is
common to more than one use case
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Use Case Relations

Behavioral relationships (continued)
Extends
Describes the situation in which one
use case possesses the behavior that
allows the new case to handle a
variation or exception from the basic
use case
Generalizes
Implies that one thing is more typical
than the other thing
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Four Types Of Behavioral

Relationships And The Lines Used To
Diagram Each
(Figure 2.13)

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Some components of use case diagrams showing

actors, use cases, and relationships for a student
enrollment example (Figure 2.14)

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Scope
System scope defines its boundaries:
What is in or outside the system
Project has a budget that helps to define
scope
Project has a start and an end time

Actors are always outside of scope

Communication lines are the
boundaries and define the scope
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Developing Use Case

Diagrams
Review the business specifications and identify
the actors involved
May use agile stories
Identify the high-level events and develop the
primary use cases that describe those events
and how the actors initiate them
Review each primary use case to determine
the possible variations of flow through the use
case
The context-level data flow diagram could act
as a starting point for creating a use case
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A Use Case Diagram Representing a

System Used to Plan a Conference (Figure
2.15 )

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Developing the Use Case

Scenarios
The description of the use case
Three main areas:
Use case identifiers and initiators
Steps performed
Conditions, assumptions, and
questions

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A Use Case Scenario Is Divided into Three Sections (Figure

2.16)
Use case name: Register for Conference
UniqueID: Conf RG 003
Area:

Conference Planning

Actor(s):

Participant

Stakeholder

Conference Sponsor, Conference Speakers

Level

Blue

Description:

Allow conference participant to register online for the conference using a secure Web site.

Triggering Event: Participant uses Conference Registration Web site, enters userID and password, and clicks the logon button.
Trigger type:

External

Temporal

Steps Performed (Main Path)

Information for Steps

1.

userID, Password

Participant logs in using the secure Web server

More steps included here

12.

Successful Registration Confirmation Web page is sent to the participant

Registration Record Confirmation Number

Preconditions:

Participant has already registered and has created a user account.

Postconditions:

Participant has successfully registered for the conference.

Assumptions:

Participant has a browser and a valid userID and password.

Success Guarantee:

Participant has registered for the conference and is enrolled in all selected sessions.

Minimum Guarantee:

Participant was able to logon.

Requirements Met:

Allow conference participants to be able to register for the conference using a secure Web site.

Outstanding Issues:

How should a rejected credit card be handled?

Priority:

High

Risk:

Medium

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Use Case Header Area

Has a name and a unique ID
Include application area
List actors
Include stakeholders
Include the level
Has a brief description of the use
case
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Use Case Levels

Use case levels describe how global or
detailed the use case description is:
White (like clouds): enterprise level
Kite: business unit or department level
Blue (sea level): user goals
Indigo (or fish): functional or subfunctional
Black (or clam): most detailed

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Alternative Scenarios
Extensions or exceptions to the
main use case
Number with an integer, decimal
point, integer
Steps that may or may not always
be used

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Use Case Footer Area

Preconditionsneed to be met before
use case can be performed
Postconditions or the state of the
system after the use case has finished
Assumptions
Minimal guarantee
Success guarantee
Outstanding issues
Optional priority and risk
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Four Steps Used to Create

Use Cases
Use agile stories, problem definition
objectives, user requirements, or a
features list
Ask about the tasks that must be
done
Determine if there are any iterative or
looping actions
The use case ends when the
customer goal is complete
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Why Use Case Diagrams

Are Helpful
Identify all the actors in the problem
domain
Actions that need to be completed
are also clearly shown on the use
case diagram
The use case scenario is also
worthwhile
Simplicity and lack of technical detail
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The Main Reasons for Writing Use Cases

Are Their Effectiveness in Communicating
with Users and Their Capturing of User
Stories (Figure 2.18)

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Management in Organizations Exists on Three

Horizontal Levels: Operational Control, Managerial
Planning and Control, and Strategic Management
(Figure 2.19)

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Operations Control
Make decisions using
predetermined rules that have
predictable outcomes
Oversee the operating details of
the organization

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Managerial Planning and

Control
Make short-term planning and
control decisions about resources
and organizational objectives
Decisions may be partly
operational and partly strategic

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Strategic Management
Look outward from the
organization to the future
Make decisions that will guide
middle and operations managers
Work in highly uncertain decisionmaking environment
Define the organization as a whole
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Managerial Levels
Different organization structure
Leadership style
Technological considerations
Organization culture
Human interaction
All carry implications for the analysis
and design of information systems
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Organizational Culture
Organizations have cultures and
subcultures
Learn from verbal and nonverbal
symbolism

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Verbal Symbolism
Myths
Metaphors
Visions
Humor

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Nonverbal Symbolism
Shared artifacts
Trophies, etc.

Rites and rituals

Promotions
Birthdays, etc.

Clothing worn
Office placement and decorations
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Summary
Organizational fundamentals
Organizations as systems
Levels of management
Organizational culture
Graphical representation of systems
DFD
ERD
Use case diagrams and scenarios
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Summary (continued)
Levels of managerial control
Operational
Middle management
Strategic
Organizational culture

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Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Prentice Hall

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