Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Elaine N. Marieb

Seventh Edition

Chapter 7
The Nervous System

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Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input gathering information
To monitor changes occurring inside and
outside the body (changes = stimuli)

2. Integration
to process and interpret sensory input
and decide if action is needed.

3. Motor output
A response to integrated stimuli
The response activates muscles or glands
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Slide 7.1a

Structural Classification of the

Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
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Slide 7.2

Functional Classification of the

Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory (afferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system

Figure 7.1
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Slide 7.3a

Functional Classification of the

Peripheral Nervous System
Motor (efferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system

Figure 7.1
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Slide 7.3b

Functional Classification of the

Peripheral Nervous System
Motor (efferent) division
Two subdivisions
Somatic nervous system = voluntary
Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

Figure 7.1
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Slide 7.3c

Organization of the Nervous

System

Figure 7.2
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Slide 7.4

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

(Neuroglia or Glia)
Astrocytes
Abundant, star-shaped cells
Brace neurons
Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons
Control the chemical
environment of
the brain (CNS)
Figure 7.3a
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Slide 7.5

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

Microglia (CNS)
Spider-like phagocytes
Dispose of debris

Ependymal cells
(CNS)
Line cavities of the
brain and spinal cord
Circulate
cerebrospinal
fluid
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Figure 7.3b, c

Slide 7.6

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

Oligodendrocytes
(CNS)
Produce myelin
sheath around
nerve fibers in the
central nervous
system
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Figure 7.3d

Slide 7.7a

Neuroglia vs. Neurons

Neuroglia divide.
Neurons do not.
Most brain tumors are gliomas.
Most brain tumors involve the neuroglia
cells, not the neurons.
Consider the role of cell division in cancer!

Support Cells of the PNS

Satellite cells
Protect neuron cell bodies

Schwann cells
Form myelin sheath in the peripheral
nervous system
Figure 7.3e

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Slide 7.7b

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neurons = nerve cells
Cells specialized to transmit messages
Major regions of neurons
Cell body nucleus and metabolic center
of the cell
Processes fibers that extend from the
cell body (dendrites and axons)
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Slide 7.8

Neuron Anatomy

Cell body
Nucleus
Large
nucleolus

Figure 7.4a
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Slide 7.9b

Neuron Anatomy
Extensions
outside the cell
body
Dendrites
conduct
impulses toward
the cell body
Axons conduct
impulses away
from the cell
body (only 1!)
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Figure 7.4a

Slide 7.10

Axons and Nerve Impulses

Axons end in axonal terminals
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft gap between adjacent
neurons
Synapse junction between nerves
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Slide 7.11

Nerve Fiber Coverings

Schwann cells
produce myelin
sheaths in jelly-roll
like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in myelin
sheath along the
axon
Figure 7.5
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Slide 7.12

Application
In Multiple Scleroses the myelin sheath is
destroyed.
The myelin sheath hardens to a tissue called
the scleroses.
This is considered an autoimmune disease.
Why does MS appear to affect the muscles?

Neuron Cell Body Location

Most are found in the central nervous
system
Gray matter cell bodies and unmylenated
fibers
Nuclei clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system

Ganglia collections of cell bodies

outside the central nervous system
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Slide 7.13

Functional Classification of
Neurons
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
Cutaneous sense organs
Proprioceptors detect stretch or tension

Motor (efferent) neurons

Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
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Slide

Functional Classification of
Neurons
Interneurons (association neurons)
Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
Connect sensory and motor neurons

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Neuron Classification

Figure 7.6
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Slide 7.15

Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neurons many extensions
from the cell body

Figure 7.8a

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Structural Classification of Neurons

Bipolar neurons one axon and one
dendrite

Figure 7.8b

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Structural Classification of Neurons

Unipolar neurons have a short single
process leaving the cell body

Figure 7.8c

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How Neurons Function

(Physiology)
Irritability ability to respond to stimuli
Conductivity ability to transmit an
impulse
The plasma membrane at rest is
polarized
Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
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Slide 7.17

Starting a Nerve Impulse

Depolarization a
stimulus depolarizes the
neurons membrane
A deploarized
membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
The exchange of ions
initiates an action
potential in the neuron
Figure 7.9ac
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Slide 7.18

The Action Potential

If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire
axon
Potassium ions rush out of the neuron
after sodium ions rush in, which
repolarizes the membrane
The sodium-potassium pump restores
the original configuration
This action requires ATP
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Slide 7.19

Nerve Impulse Propagation

The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
Impulses travel
faster when fibers
have a myelin
sheath
Figure 7.9ce
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Slide 7.20

Continuation of the Nerve Impulse

between Neurons
Impulses are able to cross the synapse
to another nerve
Neurotransmitter is released from a nerves
axon terminal
The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
An action potential is started in the dendrite
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Slide 7.21

How Neurons Communicate at

Synapses

Figure 7.10
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Slide 7.22

The Reflex Arc

Reflex rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to stimuli
Reflex arc direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Figure 7.11a
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Slide 7.23

Simple Reflex Arc

Figure 7.11b, c

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Slide 7.24

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

Autonomic reflexes
Smooth muscle regulation
Heart and blood pressure regulation
Regulation of glands
Digestive system regulation
Somatic reflexes
Activation of skeletal muscles
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Slide 7.25

Central Nervous System (CNS)

CNS develops from the embryonic
neural tube
The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
The opening of the neural tube becomes
the ventricles
Four chambers within the brain
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
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Slide 7.26

Regions of the Brain

Cerebral
hemispheres
Diencephalon
Brain stem
Cerebellum

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Figure 7.12

Slide 7.27

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

Paired (left
and right)
superior parts
of the brain
Include more
than half of
the brain
mass
Figure 7.13a
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Slide

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

The surface
is made of
ridges (gyri)
and grooves
(sulci)

Figure 7.13a
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Lobes of the Cerebrum

Fissures (deep grooves) divide the
cerebrum into lobes
Surface lobes of the cerebrum
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
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Lobes of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.15a
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Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

Somatic sensory area receives
impulses from the bodys sensory
receptors
Primary motor area sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
Brocas area involved in our ability to
speak
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Slide 7.30

Sensory and Motor Areas of the

Cerebral Cortex

Figure 7.14
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Slide 7.31

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Cerebral areas involved in special
senses
Gustatory area (taste)
Visual area
Auditory area
Olfactory area
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Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

Speech/language region
Language comprehension region
General interpretation area

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Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.13c
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Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter
Outer layer
Composed
mostly of neuron
cell bodies

Figure 7.13a
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Layers of the Cerebrum

White matter
Fiber tracts
inside the gray
matter
Example:
corpus callosum
connects
hemispheres
Figure 7.13a
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Slide

Layers of the Cerebrum

Basal nuclei internal
islands of gray matter
Regulates voluntary
motor activities by
modifying info sent to
the motor cortex
Problems = ie unable
to control muscles,
spastic, jerky
Involved in
Huntingtons and
Parkinsons Disease
Figure 7.13a
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Diencephalon
Sits on top of the brain stem
Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
Made of three parts
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus

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Diencephalon

Figure 7.15
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Thalamus
Surrounds the third ventricle
The relay station for sensory impulses
Transfers impulses to the correct part of
the cortex for localization and
interpretation

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Slide 7.35

Hypothalamus
Under the thalamus
Important autonomic nervous system
center
Helps regulate body temperature
Controls water balance
Regulates metabolism

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Slide

Hypothalamus

An important part of the limbic system

(emotions)
The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus

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Slide

Epithalamus

Forms the roof of the third ventricle

Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
Includes the choroid plexus forms
cerebrospinal fluid

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Slide 7.37

Brain Stem
Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the brain stem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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Brain Stem

Figure 7.15a
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Midbrain
Mostly composed of tracts of nerve
fibers
Reflex centers for vision and hearing
Cerebral aquaduct 3rd-4th ventricles

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Slide 7.39

Pons

The bulging center part of the brain

stem
Mostly composed of fiber tracts
Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing

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Slide 7.40

Medulla Oblongata

The lowest part of the brain stem

Merges into the spinal cord
Includes important fiber tracts
Contains important control centers
Heart rate control
Blood pressure regulation
Breathing
Swallowing
Vomiting

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Slide 7.41

Cerebellum
Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces
Provides involuntary coordination of
body movements

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Cerebellum

Figure 7.15a
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Protection of the Central Nervous

System
Scalp and skin
Skull and vertebral column
Meninges

Figure 7.16a
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Protection of the Central Nervous

System
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood brain barrier

Figure 7.16a
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Meninges
Dura mater
Double-layered external covering
Periosteum attached to surface of the
skull
Meningeal layer outer covering of the
brain

Folds inward in several areas

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Meninges
Arachnoid layer
Middle layer
Web-like

Pia mater
Internal layer
Clings to the surface of the brain
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Cerebrospinal Fluid
Similar to blood plasma composition
Formed by the choroid plexus
Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
spinal cord
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Slide 7.46

Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17a

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Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17b
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Blood Brain Barrier

Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body
Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
Useless against some substances
Fats and fat soluble molecules
Respiratory gases
Alcohol
Nicotine
Anesthesia
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Slide 7.48

Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)

Concussion
Slight or mild brain injury
Bleeding & tearing of nerve fibers
happened
Recovery likely with some memory loss

Contusion
A more severe TBI
Nervous tissue destruction occurs
Nervous tissue does not regenerate

Cerebral edema

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Slide 7.49

 Cerebral edema
Swelling from the inflammatory response
May compress and kill brain tissue

Subdural hematoma
Collection of blood below the dura

Standards for these conditions were revised

in 2004. Please check out TBIs at
Mayoclinic.com for more current
information on diagnostic terminology.

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

Commonly called a stroke
The result of a ruptured blood vessel
supplying a region of the brain
Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
that blood source dies
Loss of some functions or death may
result
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Slide 7.50

Alzheimers Disease
Progressive degenerative brain disease
Mostly seen in the elderly, but may
begin in middle age
Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted
fibers within neurons
Victims experience memory loss,
irritability, confusion and ultimately,
hallucinations and death
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Slide 7.51

Spinal Cord
Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
the region of T12
Below T12 is the cauda
equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
Enlargements occur in
the cervical and lumbar
regions
Figure 7.18
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Slide 7.52

Spinal Cord Anatomy

Exterior white mater conduction tracts

Figure 7.19
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Spinal Cord Anatomy

Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
Dorsal (posterior) horns
Anterior (ventral) horns

Figure 7.19
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Spinal Cord Anatomy

Central canal filled with cerebrospinal
fluid

Figure 7.19
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Spinal Cord Anatomy

Meninges cover the spinal cord
Nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae
Dorsal root
Associated with the dorsal root ganglia
collections of cell bodies outside the central
nervous system

Ventral root
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Slide 7.54

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
Neuron fibers are bundled by
connective tissue

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Slide 7.55

Structure of a Nerve
Endoneurium
surrounds each fiber
Groups of fibers are
bound into fascicles
by perineurium
Fascicles are bound
together by
epineurium
Figure 7.20
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Slide 7.56

Classification of Nerves
Mixed nerves both sensory and motor
fibers
Afferent (sensory) nerves carry
impulses toward the CNS
Efferent (motor) nerves carry impulses
away from the CNS

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Slide 7.57

Spinal Nerves
There is a pair of spinal nerves at the
level of each vertebrae.

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Slide 7.63

Spinal Nerves

Figure 7.22a
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Slide 7.64

Autonomic Nervous System

The involuntary branch of the nervous
system
Consists of only motor nerves
Divided into two divisions
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
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Slide 7.67

Comparison of Somatic and

Autonomic Nervous Systems

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Figure 7.24

Slide 7.69

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous

System

Figure 7.25
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Slide 7.73

Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic fight-or-flight
Response to unusual stimulus
Takes over to increase activities
Remember as the E division = exercise,
excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

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Autonomic Functioning
Parasympathetic housekeeping
activites
Conserves energy
Maintains daily necessary body functions
Remember as the D division - digestion,
defecation, and diuresis

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Development Aspects of the

Nervous System
The nervous system is formed during
the first month of embryonic
development
Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
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Development Aspects of the

Nervous System
No more neurons are formed after birth,
but growth and maturation continues for
several years (new evidence!)
The brain reaches maximum weight as
a young adult
However, we can always grow
dendrites!
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