Thermal Properties

Issues to Address...
How does a material respond to heat?
How do we define and measure...
--heat capacity
--coefficient of thermal expansion
--thermal conductivity
--thermal shock resistance
How do ceramics, metals, and polymers rank?
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Temperature Effect of Material Properties
Summary: when T
Bond energy & Bond length
# Vacancies: Nv
Diffusion coefficient: D
Modulus of elasticity: E
Ductility or toughness:
Creep rupture time:
e-conductivity of metals:
e-conductivity of intrinsic Si:
e-mobility & h-mobility:
e-excitation:
Magnetic moment: B or M
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 Heat Capacity
General: The ability of a material to absorb heat.
Quantitative: The energy required to increase the
temperature of per mole material by one unit.
energy input (J/mol)
heat capacity dQ
(J/mol-K) C
dT temperature change (K)

Two ways to measure heat capacity:

-- Cp : Heat capacity at constant pressure.
-- Cv : Heat capacity at constant volume.
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 Heat Capacity vs Temperature
Heat capacity... Same for all materials
--increases with temperature
--reaches a limiting value of 3R, at T > D
Heat capacity, Cv
3R
Cv=constant
gas constant
= 8.31 J/mol-K

Cv = AT3 T (K)
D, Debye temperature
(usually < Troom) thermal-4
 Heat Capacity
Why materials absorb heat?
Atomic view:
--Energy is stored as atomic vibrations.
--As T goes up, so does the average energy of
atomic vibration Positions displaced
because of vibration
Normal positions
of atoms

Vibrational Waves: Phonons

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 Heat Capacity
Material cp (J/kg-K) at room T
Polymers Specific heat
Polypropylene 1925
Polyethylene 1850 cp: J/kg-K
Polystyrene 1170
Teflon 1050 Cp: J/mol-K
Increasing

Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 940 Heat capacity
Alumina (Al2O3) 775
Glass 840
Metals Cp=cpA/1000
Aluminum 900
Steel 486 Atomic weight
Gold 138
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 Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when heating and cooling
L final Linitial
(T final Tinitial )
Linitial
coefficient of Tinit
Linit
thermal expansion (1/K)
Tfinal
L
or T Lfinal
Linit

Volume expansion: V/V0 = vT v=3

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 Thermal Expansion
Why materials change size with temperature?
Atomic view: T average interatomic distance
Bond energy (bond length)

r1 r5 Bond length (r)

T5
Increasing

Bond energy vs bond length

curve is asymmetric
T1
Mean position
T
Vibration range
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 Thermal Expansion
Factors affecting
(1) Bonding energy Why?

Increased deeper & narrower

bonding energy energy trough

(2) Temperature Why?

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 Thermal Expansion - Comparison
Material (10-6/K)
Polymers at room T
Polymers:
Polypropylene 145-180 weak bonding, large
Polyethylene 106-198
Polystyrene 90-150
Teflon 126-216 Metals
Metals
Metallic bonding
increasing

Aluminum 23.6
Steel 12 relatively strong
Tungsten 4.5
Gold 14.2 intermediate
Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 13.5 Ceramics
Alumina (Al2O3) 7.6
Soda-lime glass 9
Strong covalent and
Silica (cryst. SiO2) 0.4 ionic bonding
low
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 Thermal Conductivity
General: The ability of a material to transfer heat.
Quantitative:
dT temperature
heat q k gradient
flux
(J/m2-
dx
s)thermal conductivity (J/m-K-s) or
T[W/m.K]
1 T2 > T1
x1 x 2
heat flux

Heat flow is always from hot to cold, i.e

down the T-gradient (-)
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 Thermal Conductivity
Why materials conduct heat? - Mechanisms
Two contributions:
Atomic vibration: atomic vibrations in hotter region
carry energy (vibration -phonons) to cooler regions. kl
Free electron movement: conduct heat from hotter
region to cooler regions: ke

Overall: k = kl + ke

Q: what affect materials thermal conductivity (k)?

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 Thermal Conductivity
Factors affecting k
Type of material: contribution of kl and ke
Metals > Ceramics > Polymers
Temperature: increasing T reduces k -
due to increased thermal scattering
Impurity: increasing impurity level reduces k -
impurities serve as scattering centres

Materials structure: porous materials have lower k -

air in the pore has very low k
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 Thermal Conductivity - Comparison
Material k (W/m-K) Energy transfer
Metals
Aluminium 247
By electron motion
Steel 52
& atom vibration
Increasing k

Gold 315
Ceramics
MgO 38
By atom vibration
Al2O3 39
Glass 1.7
Polymers
Polystyrene 0.13 By vibration &
Teflon 0.25 chain rotation
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 Thermal Conductivity - Examples
1. A frying pan is normally made of metals, but the
handle is made of plastic or wood. Why?
Metal has high thermal conductivity, allow for effective heating;
Plastic & wood have low k, minimise heat transfer to the handle
2. On a cold day, the metal door handle feels colder to
the touch than a plastic handle. Why?
Because heat is conducted away quickly from the surface
to the interior of the metal handle.

3. The thermal conductivity of plain carbon steel is

greater than that of stainless steel. Why?
Because stainless steel has many alloying elements, which
serve as scattering centres for electrons and atom vibration
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 Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer (3 Types)

Conduction (solid)

Convection (fluid, usually pressurised)

Radiation

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Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer
Conduction:
dT dT
q k Q kA
dx dx
Heat Flux, q: J/m2.s
Conductivity, k: W/m.K
Area, A: m2
Temp, T: K
Thickness, x: m
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 Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer

Conduction:
1000 800C
C
Consider heat conduction through a
barrier of 1 m2:
A = 1 m2
x = 50 x 10-3 m x
k = 0.2 W/m.K
50 mm
Q = -0.2 x 1 x (800 1000)/(50 x 10-3)
= 0.8 x 103 J/m2.s
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 Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer
Conduction: 1000 XC
C
A = 1 m2
x = 100 x 10-3 m x
k = 0.2 W/m.K
60 mm
0.8 x 103 = -0.2 x 1 x (X 1000)/(60 x 10-3)
(X 1000) = [-0.8 x 103 x (60 x 10-3)]/0.2
= - 240

X = 760C
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 Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer

Steady State Conduction: T1

T2
Heat Flux across A = Heat Flux across B T3

Thermal conductivity of red = kA

xA xB
Thermal conductivity of green = kB

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 Thermal Conductivity - Hear Transfer
Conduction in Circular Convection by gas
or liquid
section
Example:
Pipe carrying hot fluid
r1
T1 T2
Rate of heat flow depends on:
Difference in Temperature
r2
External Flow Rate
Thermal Conductivity of pipe material
Surface Area of external surface

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 Thermal Conductivity - Heat Transfer
Insulation in Circular Convection by gas or liquid
section
Example:
r3
Pipe carrying hot fluid
Rate of heat flow depends on: T2
Difference in Temperature r1
T1
External Flow Rate
Thermal Conductivity of pipe material r2
Thermal Conductivity of insulating material T3
Surface Area of external surface

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 Thermal Stress and Shock
Occurs due to
(1) restrained thermal expansion/contraction
(2) temperature gradient - uneven heating/cooling
(3) mismatch in thermal expansion
(1) Take heating as an example Two ends are
L1 restrained
T1 L
heat up to T2 =-(T2-T1)
L1
T2 L Strain ()

Free expansion - = E = -ET

stress free Compressive stress results thermal-23
 Thermal Stress and Shock
(1) Example: A brass rod is required to have its ends
held rigid. If the rod is stress free at room temperature
(20oC), what is the maximum temperature to which
the rod may be heated without exceeding a compressive
stress of 172 MPa? Given E=100 GPa
Solution
= -E T (T2-20oC)
-172 MPa
20x10-6 (oC)-1 (from Table 19.1)

T2 = 20o -
= 20 - -172 MPa
(100x103 MPa)[20x10-6 (oC)-1 ]
=106oC thermal-24
 Thermal Stress and Shock
(2) due to uneven heating/cooling
Ex: assume a thin layer is rapidly cooled from T1 to T2
rapid quench

tries to contract during coolingT 2 Tension develops
at surface
doesnt want to contract T1 E (T1 T2 )
Rapid cooling/heating thermal gradient stress
deformation/distortion in ductile materials
fracture of brittle materials (Ceramics)
Thermal shock fk
TSR =
resistance parameter: E thermal-25
 Thermal Stress and Shock
fk
How to Prevent Thermal Shock TSR =
E
avoid rapid cooling and heating if possible

Modify material:
high k - increase heat conduction and thus
reduce temperature gradient
low - less thermal contraction/expansion

Use material having high fracture strength ( f)

and low E
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 Summary
A material responds to heat by:
--increased vibrational energy.
Heat capacity:
--energy required to increase a unit mass by a unit T.
--polymers have the largest values.
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
--the stress-free strain induced by heating by a unit T.
--polymers have the largest values.
Thermal conductivity:
--the ability of a material to transfer heat.
--metals have the largest values.
Thermal shock resistance:
--the ability of a material to be rapidly cooled and not
crack. Maximize fk/E.

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 A phonon
1. is the particle equivalent of a wave representing
electronic vibrations
2. only exists at high temperatures
3. can only be found in thermal insulators
4. is the basic unit of heat
5. is the particle equivalent of a wave representing
lattice vibrations

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Materials change dimensions(expand or
contract) with temperature because
1. the number of vacancies changes with T
2. the number of phonons changes with T
3. the bond energy-bond length relationship
is asymmetric
4. materials change crystal systems at
different temperatures
5. materials change packing density at
different temperatures

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 Materials with strong bonds will have
1. high heat capacity
2. low heat capacity
3. high CTE
4. low CTE
5. high thermal conductivity
6. low thermal conductivity

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Which of the following is NOT effective in
reducing thermal conductivity?
1. Using a polymer
2. Raising T
3. Introducing porosity
4. Increasing impurity level
5. Isolation from the
environment

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Which of the following is NOT effective in
improving thermal shock resistance?
1. Lowering CTE
2. Increasing the modulus
3. Increasing the fracture strength
4. Raising thermal conductivity
5. Reducing the temperature
difference

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