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Transmission Line

This document discusses microwave transmission lines. It begins by reviewing different types of transmission lines including coaxial cable, parallel wire transmission line, and microstrip line. It then discusses transmission line parameters including primary line constants like resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance and how they relate to secondary line constants like characteristic impedance. Common applications of coaxial cable are presented along with formulas to determine the characteristic impedance of a transmission line in terms of the primary line constants.

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400 views129 pages

Transmission Line

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ruikarsachin

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MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

MODULE II
Microwave Transmission Lines
By Sachin Ruikar

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli 1

Syllabus
Review of transmission line theory, transmission
line equations, reflection coefficient and
transmission coefficient, standing waves and
standing wave ratio, line impedance and
admittance, Smith chart and impedance
matching, microwave coaxial line

Various Types Of
Transmission Line

As the name suggests, the transmision line is a structure which can

transport electrical energy from one point to another.

At low frequencies, a transmission line consists of two linear conductors

separated by a distance. When an electrical source is applied between
the two conductors, the line gets energized and the electrical energy
flows along the length of the conductors.
A two-conductor transmission
04/29/17 line may
Ruikar Sachin, appear
Walchand Collegein any of the forms 3
shown in the figure of Engg, Sangli
Various Types Of
Transmission Line
Co-axial cable
Consists of a solid conducting rod surrounded by the two conductors. This line has
good isolation of the electrical energy and therfore has low Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI).

Parallel wire transmission line

Consists of two parallel conducting rods. In this case the electrical energy is
distributed between and around the rods. Theoretically the electric and magnetic
fields extend over infinite distance though their strength reduces as the distance from
the line. Obviously this line has higher EMI.

Microstrip line
Consists of a dielectric substrate having ground plane on one side and a thin metallic
strip on the other side. The majority of the fields are confined in the dielectric
substrate between the strip and the ground plane. Some fringing field exist above the
substrate which decay rapidly as a function of height. This line is usually found in
printed circuit boards at high frequencies.

Balanced and Un-balanced line

If the two conductors are symmetric around the ground, then the line is called the
balanced line, otherwise the line is an un-balanced line. Transmission lines (a), (c)
and (d) are un-balanced line, whereas the line (b) is a balanced line.
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 4
of Engg, Sangli
Coaxial Cable Applications
In practice, it is usually unnecessary to
find the impedance of coaxial cable since
the impedance is part of the cable
specification
As indicated in the table, there are
standard impedances for coaxial cable
Impedance Application Typicaltypenumbers
(ohms)

50 RadioTransmitters RG8/U
CommunicationsReceivers RG58/U

75 CableTelevision RG59/U
TVAntennafeedlines
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 5
93 Computernetworks
of Engg, Sangli RG62/U
Transmission Line Parameters
Types of Circuit
Lumped
Distributed

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 6

of Engg, Sangli
Lumped Circuit Model

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 7

of Engg, Sangli
Distributed Circuit Elements

The distributed parameters can be defined per unit length of the line.
R = Resistance of both conductors together for unit length of the line (ohms/m)
L = Inductance (self and mutual) for both conductors together for unit length of the line (Henery/m)
C = Capacitance between two conductors for unit length of the line (Farad/m)
G = Leakage conductance between
04/29/17 Ruikartwo conductors
Sachin, for unit
Walchand length of the line (Mho/m).
College 8
of Engg, Sangli
Transmission Line parameter
Primary line constant
Secondary line constant

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 9

of Engg, Sangli
Primary line constant
Resistance( R):
Transmission lines are made up of the conducting wires. These are not
pure conductors and have some resistance per unit length (km or mile) depending
on type of conductor used. Hence, resistance does exist throughout the wire.
Inductance (L):
A wire carrying current gives rise to inductance. Since current is present in
the line, the conductor is surrounded and linked by magnetic flux and this
phenomenon demonstrates its effect in the distributed inductance all along the
lines.
Capacitance (C):
Capacitance is formed when two conducting wires are separated by a
dielectric material in between them. Transmission lines also have two current
carrying conductors and dielectric between them. The dielectric may be air (e.g.
open wire) or core material or dielectric substrate; thus, the distributed capacitance
exists throughout the wire.
Conductance (G):
The dielectric or insulator of the transmission line may not be perfect.
Because of leaky capacitance, a leakage current flows and leakage conductance
(G) exists between the conductor throughout its length.

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 10

of Engg, Sangli
Common Transmission Line

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 11

of Engg, Sangli
Distributed parameters of a two
conductor Transmission line
RL

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 12

of Engg, Sangli
Secondary Line Constant
The characteristic impedance (Z0),
propagation constant ( ), attenuation
constant ( ) and phase constant () are
called as Secondary line constants.
These are again expressed per unit length
of the fine. These constants vary with
frequency and also depend on primary
line constants. But primary line constants
are independent of frequency.
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 13
of Engg, Sangli
Relation between Primary &
Secondary Line constant
As in Fig. consider a short length line of l
kilometer long. The short line has a resistance R
l, inductance L l, capacitance C l.

Total Series impedance = Z 1 ( R JL)l ohms

1
Total shunt impedance = Z 2 ohms
04/29/17
JC )l
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College
(GSangli
of Engg,
14
Determination of Zo in terms of
primary constant
For a T section, the characteristics imp(Zo)
Z12
Zo Z1 Z 2
4
1
Putting Z 1 ( R JL)l and Z2 =
in above equation gives, (G JL)l

( R JL) 2 l 2 ( R JL)
Z0
4 (G JC )
As l 0 , the line impedance will be equal to characteristics
impedance
( R JL) Z
Zo
(G JC ) Y
Where, Z = (R + JL) Ruikar
04/29/17
= Total series impedance per unit length
Sachin, Walchand College 15
Y = (G+jC) = Total shunt admittance
of Engg, Sangli per unit length
Determination of Zo in terms
of primary constant
Charecteristics impedance in terms of
magnitude & phase
1
1 L 2

R 2 2 L2 tan
Zo R Zo Zo

G 2
C tan 1 C
2 2

G
i.e.

R 2
L 1 2

2
L C
Zo 4 2 . .(tan 1
) (tan 1
)
G C 2
04/29/17
2 2
R G
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 16
of Engg, Sangli
Determination of Zo in terms
of primary constant
when is small (low frequency)
R
Zo
G

When is large (high frequency)

L
Zo
C

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 17

of Engg, Sangli
Determination of propagation
constant ( )in terms of primary
For T network
l Z1 Zo
e 1
2Z 2 Z2
By putting values of Z1 & Z2 , we get

( R JL)(G JC )l
2
l
e 1 Zo(G JC )l
2
Then

l ( R JL)(G JC ) 2
e 1 ( ( R JL)(G JC .).l .l ...............(d )
2
The exponential term e l can be expressed as

l
e 1 l l .........................................(e)
04/29/17 2Ruikar
2 Sachin, Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
18
Determination of propagation
constant ( )in terms of primary
By comparing equation (d) & (e) , we get

( R JL)(G JC ) ZY
But can be written in terms of magnitude & phase form

J P P cos JP sin
Propagation constant can be written as in terms attenuation constant per unit
length & Phase constant per unit length.

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 19

of Engg, Sangli
Determination of & in terms
of primary constant
Propagation constant can be written in terms of magnitude & Phase form

1 L C
( R L )(G C ) . . tan
4 2 2 2 2
tan 2 2

2 R G
Thus
4 ( R 2 2 L2 )(G 2 2 C 2 ) J .

OR 2 2

( R L )(G C )
2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2

( 2 2 ) ( R 2 2 L2 )(G 2 2 C 2 ) ...................( a )
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 20
of Engg, Sangli
Determination of & in terms
of primary constant
J ( R JL)(G JC )
( J ) ( R JL)(G JC )
2

2 2 2 J ( RG JLC JCR 2 LC )........

Comparing real part of the equations, we get,
2 2 ( RG 2 LC )..........................(b)
Adding equation (a) and (b) , we get,

1
2
(R L )(G C ) (RG LC )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

04/29/17 2 (R L )(G C ) (RG LC )
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
2
21
Practical values of Zo, & for
underground cable
R L,.and .G C
Characteristics Impedance can be found as
( R JL ) R R
Zo 45
(G JC ) JC C
And propagation constant

( R JL)(G JC ) JCR CR 45

RC cos(45 0 ) J RC sin 45 0
RC RC
J ( J )
2 2

RC RC
Nepers /km radians / km
04/29/17 2 2
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 22
of Engg, Sangli
DISTORTIONS IN A
TRANSMISSION LINE
Types of Line Distortions
Frequency distortion
Phase (delay) distortion
Impedance distortion

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 23

of Engg, Sangli
Loading of Transmission Line
There are two types of loading
Continuous loading
In this, a tape of iron or some magnetic materials such as mu metal (u-metal)
is wound around the conductor to be loaded, thus increasing the permeability
of surrounding medium and hence, increasing the conductance
Example: submarine cable
Lumped loading
Here, loading coils are introduced at uniform space (interval) on the
transmission line. The loaded line behaves as if inductance is uniformly
increased at all frequencies upto cut-off frequency. Beyond cut-off frequency,
the attenuation increases very sharply and the line behaves like a low-pass
filter.
Example: telephone cable

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 24

of Engg, Sangli
Effects of loading:
Effect of proper loading (continuous or lumped loading), on the
secondary constants of the line may be summed up as below.

(1) Characteristic impedance (Z0) is increased and becomes

practically a pure resistance.

(2) The attenuation constant () is reduced and becomes practically

constant over the working frequency range.

(3) The phase constant () is increased and the velocity of

propagation is reduced to a value which is practically constant over
the working frequency range.

Thus, loading is very useful in telephone lines and is very extensively

used.

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 25

of Engg, Sangli
TRANSMISSION LINE
EQUATIONS
Both Electric and Magnetic fields are present in the
transmission lines
These fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave
propagation for TEM mode waves, which is the simplest mode, and assumed for
most simulators(except for microstrip lines which assume quasi-TEM, which is
an approximated equivalent for transient response calculations).
Electric field is established by a potential difference between
two conductors.
Implies equivalent circuit model must contain capacitor.
Magnetic field induced by current flowing on the line
Implies equivalent circuit model must contain inductor.

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 26

of Engg, Sangli
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
Voltage & current equations for small
section of a line

V ( Rx JLx ) I
I (Gx JCx )V
V
( R JL ) I
x
I
(G JC )V
04/29/17 x Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
27
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
Now if the lumped circuit model should be valid for
arbitrarily high frequency (i.e. arbitrarily small ), the
analysis has to be carried out in the limit X 0
V dV
lim ( R JL ) I
x o x dx
I dI
lim (G JC )V
x o x dx
d 2V dI
( R J L )
dx 2 dx
BY Putting the value of dI/dx , we get
d 2V
2
( R J L )(G J C )V 2
V
dx
d 2I dV
(G J C )
dx 2 dx
By putting the value of dV/dx
d 2I
04/29/17 2 ( R J L )(
Ruikar Sachin, JC
G Walchand )I 2 I
College 28
dx of Engg, Sangli
TRANSMISSION
2
LINE EQUATIONS
d V
2
V 2

dx
d 2I
2
2
I
dx
Thus both voltage & current are governed by
Linear Differential equation
The solution of the above equations can be written as
x x
V V e V e
I I e x I e x
These
04/29/17 are general line
Ruikarequations
Sachin, Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
29
TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS
v(t ) V e jt e x V e jt e x
i (t ) I e jt e x I e jt e x
but J
jt ( J ) x jt ( J ) x
v(t ) V e e V e e
i (t ) I e jt e ( J ) x I e jt e ( J ) x
BY separating the terms we get
v(t ) V e x e Jt Jx V ex e Jt Jx
i (t ) I e x e Jt Jx I ex e Jt Jx
t x phase(V ) for forward travelling wave

04/29/17
t x phaseRuikar
(V Sachin,
) forWalchand
backwardCollege travelling wave30
of Engg, Sangli
Physical Interpretation of
Voltage & Current Solution
V ( x) V e x V e x

Forward travelling wave x

Backward traveeling wave x
I ( x) I e x I e x
d x
[V e V e x ] ( R JL)[ I e x I e x ]
dx
V e x V e x ( R JL)[ I e x I e x ]
coefficient of e x : V ( R JL) I
coefficient of e x : V ( R JL) I
Since, ( R JL)(G JC )

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 31

of Engg, Sangli
Physical Interpretation of
Voltage & Current Solution
V ( R JL) R JL
Zo
I
G JC
and
V
( R JL) R JL
Zo
I
G JC
V V e x V e x
V x V x
I e e
04/29/17 Zo Ruikar Sachin,
Zo Walchand College
of Engg, Sangli
32
Lossless & Distortion less line
Lossless Line ( R G 0)
R JL
Zo
G JC
L
Z0
C
propagatio n Constant
( R JL )(G JC )
for above conditions
J LC
LC
0
1
04/29/17 RuikarSachin, Walchand College 33
LC
of Engg, Sangli
Distortionless line
Distortionless line RC LG
from equations
2 ( RG J LC ) 2
( RG J LC ) J
RG
LC

put the value of
1

LC LC
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 34
of Engg, Sangli
STANDING WAVES AND
IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION
How standing waves are formed on a line?
The voltage and current on the line are superposition of the two waves travelling
in the opposite directions.
Where l is the distance measured from the load towards the generator l=-x.
The general equation of line are
V V e x V e x
I I e x I e x
Now for the distance l of load end
V (l ) V e l V e l
I (l ) I e l I e l
Incident Wave V e x V e l
Reflected wave V e x V e l

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 35

of Engg, Sangli
Voltage Reflection Co-efficient and
its Relation to Load Impedance
As a measure of reflected energy we define a quantity called '
Voltage Reflection Coefficient ' as
Reflection coefficient (l )
V e l V 2l
(l ) l

e
V e V
(l ) represents the reflection coefficient at a
distance of ' l ' from load end
Larger value of reflection coefficient indicates
more reflection from load.
Substituti ng above equation in V(l ) & I(l )
V (l ) V e l [1 (l )]
V l
I (l )
04/29/17 Sachin,
e [1Ruikar (l )]Walchand College 36
Zo of Engg, Sangli
Impedance
Impedance seen at any distance l from the load in terms of the ' Reflection
Coefficient ' then is
V (l ) 1 (l )
Z (l ) Zo
I (l ) 1 (l )
Cross multiplying & simplifying, we get
Z (l ) Zo
(l )
Z (l ) Zo
Above equation gives reflection coefficient at a distance of
' l ' from load end. When l 0, we have Z(l ) Z R , hence we get
Z R Zo
(0) L
Z R Zo
Where L is the reflection coefficent at the load end &is defined as
V Re felected voltage at load end
L
V Incident voltage at load end
Reflection coefficient can also be defined in terms of current
I Re felected current at load end
L
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 37
I Incident current at load endSangli
of Engg,
Impedance at any point
Reflection coefficient (l )
V e l V 2l
(l ) l e L e 2l
V e V
The voltage & current at any location on the line
as give by the equation
V (l ) V e l [1 L e 2l ]
V l
I (l ) e [1 L e 2l ]
Zo
The input impedance at any point on the line is given by
[1 L e 2l ]
Z (l ) Zo 2l
[1 L e ]
Substituti ng from L equation into above equation
l Z R Z O l
e e
Z (l ) Zo Z R ZO
l Z R Z O l
04/29/17 e Ruikar Sachin,
e Walchand
College 38
Z R Z O of Engg, Sangli
Impedance at any point
( Z R Z O )e l ( Z R Z O )e l
Z (l ) Zo l l
( Z R Z O ) e ( Z R Z O ) e
Rearranging the above equation, gives
Z R (e l e l ) Z O (e l e l )
Z (l ) Zo l l l l
Z R (e e ) Z O (e e )
e l e l e l e l
Since sinh l and cosh l
2 2
Z R cosh l Zo sinh l
Z (l ) Zo
Z
R sinh l Zo cosh l
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 39
of Engg, Sangli
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
The maximum and minimum peak voltages measured In telecommunications,
on the line are standing wave ratio (SWR)
is the ratio of the amplitude
of a partial standing wave at
an antinode (maximum) to
the amplitude at an adjacent
Let us define a quantity called ' Voltage Standing node (minimum), in an
Wave Ratio (VSWR) ' as electrical transmission line.

Substituting for and we get

VSWR is accurate indicator of reflection coefficient on the transmission line.
Vmax > Vmin. And is always greater than 1.
It could be infinity when Vmin=0.
Since, =1 corresponds to L =0 (No reflection).
Similarly, = infinity, corresponds to L =1 (FULL).

For efficient power delivery to the load and L should be as

small as possible.
VSWR=1, corresponds to max power transfer.
04/29/17
Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College
VSWR = ofinfinity(
40
Engg, Sangli), no power delivery to the load.
Return Loss & Reflection Co-efficient
The return loss is defined as
Return loss (RL) 20log L dB
The return loss indicates the factory by which the reflected signal is down
compared to the incident signal.
For perfect match L 0 and the return loss is , whereas for the worst
case of L 1 the return loss is 0 db.
Higher the return loss better is the match.
For acceptable value of VSWR 2,
VSWR- 1 2 - 1 1
L
VSWR 1 2 1 3
Return loss (RL) - 20log(1/3) 9.54
The return loss should be higher than 9.54.
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 41
of Engg, Sangli
Impedance Variation on Transmission Line
The general equation of line in terms of reflection coefficent are,
V (l ) V e jl 1 L e j ( 2 l )

e jl 1 L e j ( 2 l )
V
I (l )
Zo
V (l ) 1 L e j ( 2 l )
Z (l ) Zo
I (l ) 1 L e j ( 2 l )
Z Zo
Substituti ng L R
ZR Zo
ZR Zo j ( 2 l )
1 e
V (l ) ZR Zo
Z (l ) Zo
I (l ) 1 ZR Zo j ( 2 l )
e
ZR Zo
Rearranging terms of Z & Zo and noting that
e jl e - jl 2 cos l and e jl e - jl 2 j sin l
Z L cos l jZo sin l
Z (l ) Zo
Zo cos l jZ L sin l
OR interms of normalise impedance
04/29/17 Z L cos lRuikar
j sin l Walchand College
Sachin, 42
Z (l ) Zo Sangli
cos l jZ L sin l
of Engg,
Impedance Variation on Transmission Line
The maximum impedance occurs where the voltage is maximum and
current is minimum and its value is
Vmax 1 L
Z (l ) max Zo Rmax
I min 1 L
Noting that quantity inside the square brackets is the VSWR, we get
Rmax Zo
Similarly, the minimum impedance occurs at a location where the voltage
is minimum and the current is maximum,
Vmin 1 L
Z (l ) min Zo Rmin
I max 1 L
Rmin Zo /
The magnitude of the impedance at any point on the loss-less line is bounded by

and
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 43
of Engg, Sangli
Special Cases of Line Termination
Impedance of the line are
Z L cosh l Zo sinh l
Z (l ) Z in (l ) Zo for lossy
Zo cosh l Z L sinh l
simplifying the equation j for lossless
Z L jZo tan l
Z (l ) Zo
Zo jZ L tan l
a ) Shorted line Z L Z R 0
Zin JZo tan l
L 1

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 44

of Engg, Sangli
Special Cases of Line Termination
b) Open circuited Line Z L
Zin JZo cot l
L 1

c) Matched Load
Zin Zo
L 0
1

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 45

of Engg, Sangli
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 46

of Engg, Sangli
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
The standing wave patterns provide the top envelopes that bound
the time-oscillations of voltage and current along the line. In other
words, the standing wave patterns provide the maximum values
that voltage and current can ever establish at each location of the
transmission line for given load and generator, due to the
interference of incident and refelected wave.

The patterns present a succession of maxima and minima which

repeat in space with a period of length /2, due to constructive or
destructive interference between forward and reflected waves. The
patterns for a loss-less line are exactly periodic in space, repeating
with a /2 period.

Again, note that although we talk about maxima and minima of the
standing wave pattern we are always examining a maximum of
voltage or current that can be achieved at a transmission line
location during any period of oscillation.

04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 47

of Engg, Sangli
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
The voltage standing wave pattern provides immediate information
on the transmission line circuit
If the load is matched to the transmission line ( ZR = Z0 ) the
voltage standing wave pattern is flat, with value | V+ |.
If the load is real and ZR > Z0 , the voltage standing wave
pattern starts with a maximum at the load.
If the load is real and ZR < Z0 , the voltage standing wave
pattern starts with a minimum at the load.
If the load is complex and Im(ZR ) > 0 (inductive reactance),
the voltage standing wave pattern initially increases when
moving from load to generator and reaches a maximum first.
If the load is complex and Im(ZR ) < 0 (capacitive reactance),
the voltage standing wave pattern initially decreases when
moving from load to generator and reaches a minimum first.
04/29/17 Ruikar Sachin, Walchand College 48
of Engg, Sangli
Graphical Approach for Transmission Analysis