MECHANICAL DESIGN

OF PROCESS
EQUIPTMENT
 Covers those aspects of
mechanical design of chemical
plant.
The main topic considered is the
design of pressure vessel.
Chapter 13- design in storage
tank, centrifuges and heat-
exchanger tube sheets are also
discuss.
Chemical engineer will be
responsible for developing and
specifying the basic design
information.
 The basic info needed by the
specialised designer;
a) Vessel function
b) Process materials and services
c) Operating and design temperature
and pressure
d) Material and construction
e) Vessel dimensions and orientation
f) Type of vessel heads to be used
g) Openings and connections required.
h) Specification of heating and cooling
jackets or coils
i) Type of agitator
j) Specification of internal fittings
WHAT DO YOU KNOW
ABOUT
 a closed container
designed to hold gases or
liquids at
pressure substantially
different from the
ambient pressure
 No strict definition of what
constitutes a pressure vessel.

General term- any closed vessel

over 150mm diameter subject to a
pressure difference of more than
0.5 bar should be designed as a
pressure vessel.

Divided into 2 classes depending

on the ratio of the wall thickness to
vessel diameter. Less than 1:10
(thin walled vessels). More than the
ratio known as (thick wv)
 In all major industrial countries the
design and fabrication of thin-walled
pressure vessel is covered by national
standard and codes of practice.

No international standard of PV
design, but mostly refer to;
1) ASME boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(required std in US, Canada & etc)
2) European Union-European Standard
EN 13445

- Pressure Vessel for chemical and

allied industries
European Standard EN 13445
British Standard PD 5500
 TOP NOZZLE

TOP HEAD

SIDE NOZZLE

FLANGE

SHELL
GASKET

DRAIN NOZZLE

BOTTOM
HEAD
1. PRINCIPLE STRESSES
2. THEORIES OF FAILURE (MPST/MSST))
3. ELASTIC STABILITY (eg: buckling &
wrinkling). Elastic buckling is the
decisive criterion in the design of thin
walled vessels under external pressure.
Buckling occurs when critical value load
exceeded catastrophic failure. ( a
sudden and total failure of some system
from which recovery is impossible)
In thin walled vessels, can fail by
buckling under compressive loads.
4.MEMBRANE STRESSES IN
SHELLS
- Analysis based on internal
pressure gives a basis for
determining the minimum wall
thickness required for vessel
shells.(cylinder, sphere, cone,
ellipsoid, torus, torispherical
heads) ..refer pages 987-993.
5. FLAT PLATES- are used as covers
for manholes, as blind flanges,
and for the ends of small
diameter and low pressure
vessels.
Clamped edges
Simply supported plate

6. DILATION OF VESSELS- under

internal pressure a vessel will
expand slightly. The radial growth
can be calculated from elastic
strain in the radial direction.
7. PRIMARY & SECOND STRESSES

Primary Stresses
Those stresses that are necessary
to satisfy the conditions of static
equilibrium.

Example:
1. The membrane stresses
induced by the applied pressure
2. Bending stresses due to wind
loads.
7. PRIMARY & SECOND STRESSES

Secondary Stresses
- Those stresses that arise from the
constraint of adjacent parts of the
vessel.

Example:
1. Thermal stress
2. Constraints arising at flanges,
support and the change of
section due to reinforcement at a
nozzle or opening.
1. DESIGN PRESSURE
2. DESIGN TEMPERATURE
3. MATERIALS
4. DESIGN STRESS (NOMINAL
DESIGN STRENGTH)
5. WELDED JOINT EFFICIENCY &
CONSTRUCTION CATEGORIES
6. CORROSION ALLOWANCE
7. DESIGN LOADS
8. MINIMUM PRACTICAL WALL
THICKNESS
1. DESIGN PRESSURE

a) Vessels under internal pressure

The design pressure is normally

taken as the pressure at which
the relief device is set.
Normally 5-10% above the
normal working pressure.

b) Vessels under external pressure

Designed to resist the max
differential pressure that is likely
to occur in service.
2. DESIGN TEMPERATURE

Metals strength decreases with

increasing temperature, so the
maximum allowable design
stress depends on the material
temperature.

The design temperature at

which the design stress is
evaluated should be taken as
the maximum temperature of
the material.
3. MATERIALS

Selection of a suitable material

must take into account the
suitability of the material for
fabrication (particularly welding)
as well as compatibility of
material with the process
environment.
Carbon steels, low and high alloy
steels, other alloy, clad plate and
reinforced plastic are used in
constructing a pressure vessels.
4. DESIGN STRESS

Need to identify the maximum

allowable stress by applying a
suitable design stress factor
(factor of safety).

a) Materials subjected to low

temperature
- Design stress refer to yield
stress & ultimate stress at
design temperature.
b) Materials subjected to high
temperature

- Design stress based on creep

characteristic of material. Thus it
depends on;
Average stress to produce
rupture after 105 hours.
or
Average stress to produce a
1% strain after 105 hours at
design temperature
(Refer Table 13.1 & 13.2)
5. WELDED JOINT EFFICIENCY
AND CONSTRUCTION
CATEGORIES

Strength of welded joint

depend on a) the type of joint
and b) the quality of the
welding.

Soundness of welds is checked

by visual inspection and by
non-destructive testing
(radiography).
 Possible lower strength of a
welded joint compared with the
virgin plate is usually allowed in
design and calculated by;

(Allowable design stress) X

( welded join factor E)

Join factor J depends on;

1) Type of joint
2) Amount of radiography required
by the design code.
Refer Table: Max allowable joint
efficiency
Lower class joint factors cause;
-saving costs on radiography

But.
- Result in thicker, heavier, vessel.

Thus, the designer must balance

any cost savings on inspection
and fabrication against the
increased cost of materials.
6. CORROSION ALLOWANCE

The additional thickness of metal

added to allow for material lost
by corrosion and erosion or
scaling.

Severe corrosion is not expected

(eg: carbon and low alloy steels)
0.2mm
Severe condition are anticipated
0.4mm
6. CORROSION Consequences;
- Plant Shutdown
Shutdown and process plants may
cause severe problems to industry
and consumers
- Loss of Product
Leaking vessel cause significant
loss of product and may generate
severe accidents
- Loss of efficiency
Corrossion products will insulate
tubings and pipelines and cause
reduction heat transfer
6. CORROSION Consequences;
- Contamination
Corrosion products may
contaminate chemicals, dyes, foods
consumers.
- Hazard
- For example plants involve
radioactive-the corrosion product
in water, fatal to human, animal
and biological.
7. DESIGN LOADS

A structure must be designed to

resist gross plastic deformation
and collapse under all the
conditions of loading.

The loads to which process vessel

will be subjected in service are
listed below
7. DESIGN LOADS
Major & Subsidiary Loads

a) Major Loads
1) Design pressure
2) Maximum weight of the vessel
and contents, under operating
conditions.
3) Maximum weight of the vessel
and contents, under the
hydraulic test condition.
4) Wind Loads
5) Earthquake (seismic) loads.
6) Load supported by or reacting
on the vessel.

b) Subsidiary Loads
1) Local stresses (supports/
internal structures and
connecting pipes).
2) Shock loads (water hammer/by
surging of the vessel contents).
3) Bending moment (at working
pressure to the neutral axis of
the vessel.
4) Stresses due to temperature
differences and differences in
the coefficient expansion of
materials.
5) Loads caused by fluctuations in
temperature and pressure.
8. MINIMUM PRACTICAL WALL
THICKNESS

Minimum wall thickness

required to ensure any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its
own weight and incidental
loads.

Therefore thickness of any

vessel should not less than value
in Table 8
 Table 8
Vessel diameter Minimum
(m) thickness (mm)
1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5-3.0 10
3 to 3.5 12

Notes: Value includes a corrosion

allowance of 2 mm
1. In your word, explain what is
pressure vessel and give 1
application that use pressure
vessel?

2. List 3 types of pressure vessel

design?

3. There are 8 important criteria to

be considered in a process of
designing a pressure vessel. List
down the 5 of them.
1. CYLINDERS SHELLS

e= minimum thickness
Pi= internal pressure
Di= diameter inner
f= design stress

2. SPHERICAL SHELLS
STANDARD;
PD 5500 BS 5500
1. CYLINDERS
If a welded joint factor;

e= minimum thickness
Pi= internal pressure
Di= diameter inner
f= design stress
J= joint factor

SPHERICAL SHELL
BS 5500
3. HEADS AND CLOSURES

1. Flat plates and formed flat

heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads DOMED
HEAD
4. Torispherical heads
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads

FLANGED PLATE WELDED PLATE

WELDED PLATE BOLTED COVER

BOLTED COVER
1. Flat plates and formed flat heads

The thickness required will depend on

the degree of constraint at the plate
edge. Thus, minimum thickness;

Cp= a design constant, depend on

edge
De= nominal plate diameter
f= design stress

Cp and De based on design

(see page 1007)
Cp and De based on design (see page
1008) criteria ae

a) Flanged-only end, for diameters

less than 0.6m and corner radii at
least equal to 0.25e, Cp can be taken
as 0.45; De is equal to Di.

b&c) Plates welded to the end shell

with a fillet weld, angle of fillet 45o
and depth equal to the plate
thickness, take Cp as 0.55 and De=Di.

d) And e) refer page 1008

2. Domed End

a) HEMISPHERICAL

b) ELLIPSOIDAL

c) TORISPHERICAL
2. Domed End

a) Hemispherical heads

Brownell and Young (1959)- the

stress in head would then be
greater than that in cylindrical
section, thus the optimum
thickness ratio is normally taken
as 0.6.
2. Domed End

b) Ellipsoidal heads

Minimum thickness required;

2. Domed End

c) Torispherical heads

Cs= stress concentration factor for

torispherical heads =

Rs=crown radius
Rk=knuckle radius,

Rk:Rc>0.06 prevent buckling

Estimate the thickness required for
the component parts of the vessel
shown in the diagram. The vessel is
to operate at a pressure of 14 bar
(absolute) and the temperature of
300oC. The material of construction
will be plain carbon steel. Welds will
be fully radiographed. A corrosion
allowance of 2 mm should be used.
To determine cylinder shell minimum
thickness, refer;

1. Determine design pressure, Pi

2. Determine design stress, f
3. Its given Di= 1.5m
1. Determine design pressure, Pi
Take 10% above operating pressure;

Pi= (Pabsolute-Patm) x110%

= (14-1 bar) x 1.1
= 14.3 bar = 14.3 N/mm2

2. Determine design stress, f

Refer table 13.2 (carbon steel, T=300oC)

f= 85 N/mm2

e= (14.3 N/mm2)(1.5x103mm) =12.7mm

(2x85N/mm2)-14.3N/mm2

Add corrosion allowance 12.7 + 2mm=

14.7mm (15mm)
To determine heads minimum wall
thickness;
1. Assume to be designed as torisphere.
2. Assume to be designed as ellipsoidal.

Compare which more economical.

1. Torisphere

Cs=
1. Assume to be designed as torisphere.
Rc= Di = 1.5m
Rk= 6% Rc =1.5m x 0.06 = 0.09m
J= 1 (no joint)

Cs=

= 0.25 (3 + (1.5m/0.09m)1/2

=1.77

Thus,

e= 1.43N/mm2 x1.5x103mm x 1.77

2x 85N/mm2(1)+1.43 N/mm2(1.77-0.2)
= 22.0 mm
2. Assume to be designed as ellipsoidal.

e= (1.43 N/mm2)x(1.5x103mm)
2(1)(85N/mm2)- 0.2(1.43Nmm/2)

= 12.7mm

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be

the most economical.

Why? It takes as same thickness as wall

thickness of cylinder shell =15mm
 All pressure vessel will have
openings for connections, man
ways and instruments fittings.

The presence of this will weakens

the shell with an increased in the
stress concentration.

Stress at edge of hole will be

higher than average stress in the
surrounding plate.
 Therefore the reinforcement
must be provided to compensate
for weakening effect of the
opening without significantly
altering the dilation pattern of
the vessel at the opening.

3 types reinforcement;
a) Welded pad
b) Insert nozzle
c) Forged ring
 Over-Reinforcement will reduce
the flexibility of the wall causing
hard spot, and increase the
secondary stress.

a) Welded pad
Simplest method is to weld a
pad/ collar around the opening.

Outer diameter of the pad

usually 1.5-2 times the
hole/branch.
 In some condition high thermal
stress can arise due to poor
thermal conductivity of the pad
to shell junction.

b) Insert nozzle

Branch can also protrude

(project) into the vessel.

This design shall be used with

caution, as protrusion will act as
trap for crud and crevices are
create with corrosion.
c) Forged ring

Forged reinforcing ring the most

effective method but expensive.

But it will used for large openings/

branch that operate under severe
condition.

Refer figure 13.12 pg 1012

a) Welded pad

b) Insert nozzle

c) Forged ring
 CYLINDRICAL SHELL
2 types of vessel subjected to
external pressure :-
A) vessel operated under vacuum
(max pressure 1bar)
B) jacketed vessel, max pressure
difference been taken as full
jacketed pressure.
Thin walled vessel subject to
external pressure are liable to
failure through elastic instability
and the mode of failure that
determine the wall thickness
required.
 CYLINDRICAL SHELL
For open ended cylinder , critical
pressure to cause buckling is :-
(13.48)

L=the unsupported length of vessel

(effective length)
Pc=critical pressure to form buckling
n=the no of lobes formed at buckling
E=Youngs Modulus
v= Poissons ratio
t= Wall Thickness
Do= External diameter
 Long tubes and cylindrical vessel
this expansion can be simplified
by neglecting terms (2L/Do)2 in
the denominator, the equation
will be simplified to 13.49
min critical pressure occur then
the lobe (shell may buckle) is 2,
therefore equation will be
simplified as 13.50.
Most PV materials, Poissons
ratio can be taken as 0.3 and
substitute in 13.51 become 13.52
 For short closed vessel and long
vessel with stiffening ring, the,
the critical pressure will be
higher.

The stiffening effect can be taken

into account by introducing the
collapse coefficient, Kc (13.53).
 Kc is a function of diameter and
thickness of the vessel and the
effective L between the ends/
stiffening rings.

Critical distance between

stiffeners, Lc (13.54)

L>Lc stiffening will be not be

effective.
 Stiffening ring
 Stiffening ring must be spaces
closer than Lc.
13.53 can be used to estimate the
critical buckling pressure and
hence thickness required to resist
a given external pressure.
Refer figure of and 13.16 and
13.15
 Refer figure of 13.15
 OUT OF ROUNDNESS
any roundness in a shell after
fabrication will reduce the ability
of the vessel to resist external
pressure.
A deviation from a true circular
cross section equal to the shell
thickness will reduce the critical
buckling pressure about 50%.
Ovality/ roundness is measure
by:
For vessel under external
pressure this should not exceed
1.5%
 Pressure vessel are subjected to
other loads addition to pressure
and must withstand the worst
condition of loading without any
failure.

Trial thickness (based on

calculated for pressure alone)
must be assumed and resultant
stress from all loads determine to
ensure the maximum allowable
stress intensity do not exceed at
any point.
 Main source of load :-

a. Pressure
b. Dead weight of vessel and
contents
c. Wind
d. Earth quake
e. External load imposed by
piping/ attach equipment.
1. Longitudinal and circumferential
stresses due to pressure (internal or
external) PDi
h
2t
PDi
L
4t
2.Direct stress w due to weight of
the vessel, its contents and any
attachments. The dead-weight
stress will normally be significant,
compare to the magnitude of the
other stress. W
w
( Di t )t

W= total weight supported by the

vessel wall.
 Fig 13.18

w will be tensile (positive) for

points below the plane of the
vessel supports and compressive
(negative) for points above the
support.
3. Bending stress depends on :-
a. Wind loads on tall self-supported
vessels
b. Seismic loads on tall vessel
c. Dead weight and wind loads
on piping and equipment which is
attached to vessel but offset from the
vessel centre line
a. Deposition of dead weight (horizontal
vessel with saddle support)
M v Di
b ( t)
Iv 2

Iv
64
D 4
o Di4
Mv = total bending
Iv =the second moment of area of the
vessel about the plane of bending.
 Torsional shear stress- caused by
loads offset from the vessel axis.
Normally small
Not be considered in preliminary
vessels design.

T D
( i t)
Ip 2

Ip
32
4
D
o Di4
 The maximum shear stress
theory is normally used for
pressure vessel design.

Vessel wall thickness must be

sufficient to ensure the
maximum stress intensity does
not exceed the design stress for
the material construction.
 Failure can occur in a thin walled
process column under an axial
compressive load by buckling of
the complete vessel.

For curved plates, critical

buckling stress, Rp is the radius of
curvature
E t
c 13.72
3(1 v 2 ) R p

When v = 0.3
t
c 0.6 E 13.73
Rp
 13.72 can be used to predict the
maximum allowable compressive
stress to avoid buckling failure.

For steel at ambient temp, and

E= 200,000N/mm2 and eqn 13.2
with a factor of safety of 12
gives; eqn (13.74)
 Resistance buckling failure can
be increased significantly by the
use of stiffening
rings/longitudinal strips.

Method for estimating the

critical buckling stress for
stiffened vessels are given in the
standard- refer BS5500
 The vessel must be able to
withstand load :-
a. During erection/dismantle
b. With the vessel erected but not
operating
c. During testing
d. During normal operation
 The major source of dead weight:

a. Vessel shell
b. Vessel fittings (man ways/ nozzle)
c. Internal fittings (plates/cooling or
heating coils)
d. External fittings (ladders,
platform/piping)
e. Other equipment (agitators)
f. Insulation
g. Weight of liquid to fill the vessel
 For vessel on skirt support, the
weight of liquid to fill the vessel
will be transferred directly to
skirt.
Preliminary calcaculation of
cylindrical vessel with domed
ends, and uniform wall thickness,
can be estimated from the
following equation.

Wv Cv m Dm g ( H v 0.8Dm )t
 Factor
1.08 vessel with few fittings Mean diameter,
1.15 for DC etc Dm = (Di +tx10-3)
Density of
materials, kg/m3

Wv Cvm Dm g ( H v 0.8Dm )t

9,81ms-1
Length of the
Total weight exclude cylindrical part
fitting, such plates N
 For steel vessel,
Wv 240Cv Dm ( H v 0.8Dm )t

Following value can be rough guide

to weight of fittings ;

a) caged ladders, steel, 360 N/m length

b) plain ladders, steel 150 N/m length
c) platform, vertical columns 1.7 kN/m2
d) contacting plates, steel 1.2 kN/m2 plate
areas
 Insulating materials (kg/m3)
Foam glass 150
Mineral wool 130
Fiberglass 100
Calcium silicate 200

These densities should be

doubled to allow for attachments
fittings, sealing and moisture
absorption.
 Wind load important to tall
columns installed in the open.
wx 2
M x X = distance measure
W= load per unit length
2

Bending moment at the column

base caused by concentrated
load is given by :-

M p Fp H p Fp = local, concentrated,
load
Hp= height of
concentrated load
 Action of wind will depend on the
shape and structure.
Pw 0.5Cd p a u 2
w

Pw wind pressure (load per unit area, N/m 2 )

Cd drag coefficien t (shape factor)
a density of air
uw wind velocity (km/h)
For smooth cylindrical column
Pw 0.05u w2
If the column is broken up by
attachments factor of 0.05 can
be changed to 0.07
 Wind speed depends on the
study of meteorological records.
Wind speed of 160 km/h & wind
pressure 1280 N/m2
Wind velocity near ground will be
lower than at higher position.
Lower wind pressure is used
below 20 m(about half of the
pressure)
Loading per unit length
W Pw Deff Pw = wind pressure, N/m2
Deff = effective column diameter

Deflection of tall columns

Allowable deflection less than
150 mm per 30 meter of height.
Wind induces vibrations
Vortex shedding from tall thin
columns can induce vibration can
cause premature failure of the
vessel by fatigue.
For free standing columns with
height to diameter ratio > 10

Earthquake Loading
Total shear force on vessel :-
Wv
Fs ae
g
(ae/g) seismic constant Ce. It
been determined empirically from
studies of the damage.
 Auxiliary equipment to tall vessel
will subject the vessel to a
bending moment if the gravity
center of the equipment does not
coincide with the center line.
The moment may produce by
heavy equipment such as reflux
condenser.
M e We Lo We = dead weight
Lo = distance between center of
gravity and the column center
line
1. Sketch stress-strain diagram of ductile
material and name all 4 regions based on
the conventional diagram. (6M)
2. Identify all points including proportional
limit, ultimate and fracture in the
diagram. (3M)
3. For ductile material, how is yielding
point being determined? (1M)
4. List 3 properties that can be determined
from the same diagram. (3M)
5. What is Poison Ratio? (2M)
6. Suggest 2 theories can be used to
estimate the failure of aluminium and
glass. (4)