Session 1

Networking Fundamentals

Amit Kohli

1
Networking

- Interconnection of workstations, peripherals, and

other devices.

- Two computers are said to be interconnected if they

can exchange information.

2
 Why network computers ?
•Resource sharing.
•High reliability.
•Saving money.
•Scalability.
•Communication medium.

3
Networking Overview

 What is needed to communicate?

 At least 1 networking device (typically)

i.e. switch, hub, router, etc.

 Some form of medium

i.e.Air – Wireless, Copper, Cables, Fiber Optics

 A common language (protocol)

i.e. TCP, IP, IPX, NetBEUI

4
LAN technologies

 There are three LAN technologies that

account for virtually all deployed networks: 

 Ethernet/IEEE 802.3

 Token Ring/IEEE 802.5

 FDDI

5
Ethernet History

 1970s – ALOHA
 1973 – 2.94 Mbps CSMA/CD
 1976 – Star Computer defined 10Mbps
Network
 1979 – DIX Consortium
 DEC- Transceiver
 Intel – Controller Chips
 Xerox – Ethernet
 1980-83 – Standard Path from DIX – 802.3

6
History Contd..

 1980 – Ethernet -- DIX v1.0

 1982 – Ethernet -- DIX v2.0
 1983 – IEEE 802.3 Standard Approved
 1995 – IEEE 802.3u – 100 Mpbs
 1998 – IEEE 802.3z – 1000 Mpbs
 2002 – IEEE 802.3ae – 10 Gbps

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ETHERNET

 Ethernet is a LAN specification developed by

Xerox, Intel, and Digital, which is based upon
CSMA/CD and runs over various cable types.
Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 are very similar
protocols.
 Ethernet has survived as the major LAN
technology (it is currently used for approximately
85 percent of the world's LAN-connected PCs and
workstations) because its protocol has the various
characteristics

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Ethernet Features

 Is easy to understand, implement, manage, and maintain

 Allows low-cost network implementations
 Provides extensive topological flexibility for network
installation
 Guarantees successful interconnection and operation of
standards-compliant products, regardless of
manufacturer
 Quality Standard – Interpretable products
 Ethernet has displaced Token ring, FDDI, ATM
 Ethernet is moving beyond the enterprise to WAN,
MAN, SAN, home & access technologies !!!

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Ethernet Network Elements

 Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting

media. The network nodes fall into two major classes:

 Data terminal equipment (DTE)—Devices that are either the

source or the destination of data frames. DTEs are typically
devices such as PCs, workstations, file servers, or print
servers that, as a group, are all often referred to as end
stations.

 Data communication equipment (DCE)—Intermediate

network devices that receive and forward frames across the
network. DCEs may be either standalone devices such as
repeaters, network switches, and routers, or communications
interface units such as interface cards & modems.

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 The Ethernet LAN protocol was
originally developed to operate over
coaxial cables.

 10Base5 / Thick net cable:

is an RG/U-8 coaxial cable, was the
original Ethernet cable. is no longer in
use in modern LANs.

 10Base2 / Thin net cable:

is an RG/U-58 coaxial cable, has a
smaller diameter than Thick net.
replaced Thick net.

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Unshielded Twisted Pair
 

 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is used for both

LANs and telephone systems. UTP cables are composed
of four color-coded pairs of copper conductors twisted
around each other.
 In outer jacket provides protection and keeps the pairs
in alignment. UTP cable connects to devices via 8 pin
modular connectors called RJ-45 plugs. All LAN
protocols can operate over UTP. Most modern LAN
devices are equipped with RJ-45 jacks.

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 There are 5 categories (levels) for UTP cable. These support
low-speed voice signals and high-speed LAN signals.
Category 5 UTP is the recommended minimum category for
LAN installations. It is well-suited to star topologies. The
following chart shows the specifications for each category:

 CAT 1 – 1 Mhz (Voice, Main frame)

 CAT 2 – 4 MHZ (4MB Token ring)
 CAT 3 – 10 MHZ (10MB Ethernet)
 CAT 4 – 20 MHZ (16MB Token ring)
 CAT 5 – 100 MHZ (100MB Ethernet)

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Shielded Twisted Pair
  Shielded twisted pair is a special kind of copper telephone wiring
used in some business installations. An outer covering or shield is
added to the ordinary twisted pair.
 STP cable is also used for Data Networks. It originated with
IBM's Token-Ring networks. Its shielding allows greater
tolerances for protection from EMI interference, such as from
flourescent light fixtures and electric motors

What are Drawbacks of STP?

 Its attenuation may increase at high frequencies.
 At high frequencies, balance may decrease if the effects of the
shield are not compensated for leading to cross talk and signal
noise.
 The biggest drawback is the cost and physical size of the cabling.

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Fiber Optic Cable
 
 Fiber Optic cables are the latest
development in cabling
technology. They are
constructed from optical glass.
There is a central glass
filament, called the core, and
surrounding layers of cladding,
buffer coatings, strengthening
materials, and an outer jacket.
 Information is transmitted by
wavelengths of light. This is
accomplished through devices
that convert electrical signals
into rapid pulses of either LED
or Laser light.

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Basics of optical fiber transmission

> What is an optical fiber?

- A glass or plastic fiber
that has the ability to
guide light along its axis.
> A fiber cable consists
of three layers:
- core,
- cladding,
- jacket.

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Contd..

> Total Internal Reflection: when  c  sin  1( n n then

) the
1 0
light is totally reflected in the core, where refractive
index of the core and cladding respectively.

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Fiber Types

• Multi-Mode: supports hundreds paths for light

• Single-Mode: supports a single path for light

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Multi-Mode vs Single-Mode

Multi-Mode Single-Mode
Modes of light Many One
Distance Short Long
Bandwidth Low High
Typical Access Metro, Core
Application

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What Are the Advantages of Fiber Optics?

 High bandwidth capacity (many gigabits per

second)

 Longer distances between devices (from 2 to over 60

Kms)

 Immunity to electromagnetic interferences

 Fiber optic cables are widely used in LAN & WANs

for both voice and data communications.

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What is a Network?
 

 A network is a
collection of
computers, printers,
routers, switches, and
other devices that are
able to communicate
with each other over
some transmission
media

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LAN , WAN, MAN, SAN

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  Local Area Networks (LAN)

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of

computers and network communication devices
within a limited geographic area, such as an office
building.

They are characterized by the following:

 High data transfer speeds

 Generally less expensive technologies
 Limited geographic area

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LAN Infrastructure

 There are numerous devices associated with data

information flow across a LAN.  When adjoined,
they create the infrastructure of a functional LAN. 
These devices include: 

 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Hubs
 Switches
 Routers

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LAN TOPOLOGIES

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BUS Topology

 A single cable connects each workstation in a linear, daisy-

chained fashion.
 Signals are broadcasted to all stations, but stations only act
on the frames addressed to them.

Bus Topology Pros/Cons

 The main advantage of the bus

topology is the ease of
initial set-up.
 The primary disadvantage is that a break in the cable
affects the entire LAN.
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RING Topology

 Unidirectional links
connect the transmit
side of one device to
the receive side of
another device.

 Devices transmit
frames to the next
device (downstream
member) in the ring.

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STAR Topology
 In a star topology, each station is connected to a
central hub or concentrator that functions as a
multi-port repeater.
 Each station broadcasts to all of
the devices connected to
hub.

Star Topology Pros/Cons

 The primary advantage of the star topology is that
a cable break usually affects only one workstation.
Workstations can be added easily, without
affecting the entire network.
 The main disadvantage is the amount of cable used

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Sample LAN Implementation
Business Configuration

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Wide Area Networks (WAN)

 A Wide Area Network (WAN) interconnects LANs.  It is

not restricted to a particular geographic area and may
be interconnected around the world.

They are characterized by the following:

 Multiple interconnected LANs

 Generally more expensive technology
 More sophisticated to implement than LANs
 Exist in an unlimited geographic area
 Less error resistance due to transmission travel
distances

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WAN Infrastructure
 As with LANs, there are numerous devices associated
with data information flow across a WAN. Together,
these devices create the infrastructure of a functional
WAN.

These devices include: 

 Router
 ATM Switch
 Modem and CSU/DSU
 Communication Server
 Multiplexer
 X.25/Frame Relay Switches

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WAN TOPOLOGIES

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Point-to-Point Topology
   Point-to-point (dedicated)
line connects two devices,
one at each end of the line.
Line-sharing devices, such
as multiplexors, can be
attached at either end.

 Point-to-point lines can be

used for simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex
operation and are popular
in mainframe
environments

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Point-to-Multipoint Topology
 

 A point-to-multipoint
line connects a central
device to two or more
remote devices.
 Point-to-multipoint lines
are capable of full-duplex
operation, but the
attached devices usually
operate in half-duplex
mode

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Full Mesh Topology
 

 In a mesh topology, every location in a WAN connects to

every other location. Routers are used to control the flow
of information between locations.

B
A

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Sample WAN Implementation
Business Configuration

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MAN Dynamics

> Extremely Heavy Traffic between campuses

 Large campuses have several thousand users per site
 Inter-LAN traffic often reaches multi-gigabit range today
 This Traffic will continue to grow !!!
> Interconnecting campus LAN on a single, shared high
seamlessly linking all sites on a VPN
 No translations required between sites
 Very high traffic concentration between ring nodes

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What is METRO Ethernet ?

> A Metro Ethernet Network (MEN) offers Ethernet access &

Ethernet based services across a MAN
> Some Services Providers have introduced MEN like technology
for the Wide Area Network(WAN)

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Ethernet in the Metro

> Packet Traffic is becoming dominant traffic type in networks

worldwide
> Rapid growth in sites demanding high speed access and flexible
services
> Ethernet is a mature, predictable & well understood data
networking technology
> Significantly lowers the total cost of ownership,which benefits
carriers & their customers

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Advantage of 10GbE in the Metro

> LAN and WAN compatibility

> Provides opportunity to implement dependable IP VPN services
> Secure, reliable , scalable applications
> Implementation of a single management infrastructure that can
be scaled to meet the anticipated customer base size
> Facilitating customer control of effective policies and
applications
> Reduced latency with guaranteed SLAs
> Reliable & less expensive alternative to private/leased line
communication networks

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10 GbE Applications

> Local Area Network

 High Speed Campus Backbone

 Server Farm (& back ups)
 Remove LAN bottlenecks
 ERP applications
 Edge Routers
 Test equipments

> Wide Area Network

 Inter/ Intra POP Connections

 Distance Learning

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45
46
47
Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

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Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

 A SAN is a dedicated,
high-performance
network used to move
data between servers and
storage resources.

 Because it is a separate,
dedicated network, it
avoids any traffic conflict
between clients and
servers.

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50
Network Hardware

51
 OSI Model Layers
7 Application
HUB 6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
 An unintelligent network device that 3 Network
sends one signal to all of the stations 2 Data Link
connected to it. 1 Physical
 All computers/devices are competing for
attention because it takes the data that
comes into a port and sends it out all the
other ports in the hub.
 Traditionally, hubs are used for star
topology networks, but they are often
used with other configurations to make it
easy to add and remove computers
without bringing down
the network.
 Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model

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 4

Hub
5
2

3
6

1 single Segment

HUB

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 OSI Model Layers
Bridge 7 Application
6 Presentation
 Connects two LANs and forwards or 5 Session
filters data packets between them. 4 Transport
 Creates an extended network in which 3 Network
any two workstations on the linked 2 Data Link
LANs can share data.
 Transparent to protocols and to 1 Physical
higher level devices like routers.
 Forward data depending on the
Hardware (MAC) address, not the
Network address (IP).
 Resides on Layer 2 of the OSI model.

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 OSI Model Layers
Switch 7 Application
 Split large networks into small 6 Presentation
segments, decreasing the number of 5 Session
users sharing the same network 4 Transport
resources and bandwidth.
 Helps prevent data collisions and 3 Network
reduces network congestion, 2 Data Link
increasing network performance. 1 Physical
 Most home users get very little, if any,
advantage from switches, even when
sharing a broadband connection.
 Resides on Layer 2/3 of the OSI
model.

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Micro Segmentation
Switch

HUB HUB

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Switch? Hub?
What’s the difference?

N x 10Mbps
10Mbps
(10 Mbps/port)
Shared

Hub Gives Switch Gives

Shared Bandwidth Dedicated Bandwidth

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Switches are better than Bridges

10 Mbps
Workstation
Coaxial Cable
“shared” 34
31

BRIDGE 35
32

33 36

Segment 1 Segment 2

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Switches are better than Hubs

10 Mbps
Workstation
UTP Cable
“dedicated” 34
31

35
32 SWITCH

33 36

N Segments N Segments

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 OSI Model Layers
Repeater 7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
 Used to boost the signal between two 4 Transport
cable segments or wireless access points.
3 Network
 Can not connect different network 2 Data Link
architecture. 1 Physical
 Does not simply amplify the signal, it
regenerates the packets and retimes
them.
 Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model.

60
 OSI Model Layers
Router 7 Application
6 Presentation
 A device that connects any 5 Session
number of LANs. 4 Transport
 Uses standardized protocols to move 3 Network
packets efficiently to their destination. 2 Data Link
 More sophisticated than bridges, 1 Physical
connecting networks of different types (for
example, star and token ring)
 Forwards data depending on the Network
address (IP), not the Hardware (MAC)
address.

 Resides on Layer 3 of the OSI model.

61
Router Pictures

62
Router example

Router

Internet
To ISP

Building

Router

Switch

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Network probes

 Network probes are small hardware devices that are designed to

passively collect data. This may seem mundane, but the data these
probes collect provides information that is vital to your enterprise
network

 Probes provide the mechanism needed to gather data essential to

the construction of network history and trends. This information
lets network professionals make timely, informed decisions during a
network crisis or failure, and even take action to prevent a problem.
This data also provides a manager with key information when it
becomes necessary to upgrade or enhance a network.

64
 Today's networks are complicated entities that must be managed
properly. You can't manage what you can't see, however, and network
probes provide that visibility.
 A good probe provides accurate statistics concerning a network's
operation, such as traffic analysis and top users, applications and protocol
usage. Using this information, you can manage the network efficiently,
ensuring peak operation and performance.
 It is important to utilize the correct type of probe. Many probes collect
only simple measurements or don't have capacity to store enough
collected data for meaningful analysis. You should select a probe that is
capable of collecting data at a level of detail that will indicate the true
overall performance of the link or segment of the network being
monitored and that has enough memory to store data for accurate
historical analysis.
 Also make sure a probe is capable of collecting data even at the network's
near-saturation point, when visibility is most crucial. Some probes collect
data only up to 30% utilization of the network, leaving you vulnerable
when your network is in peak use.

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66
Gateway

 Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any layer

of the OSI model. The job of a gateway is much more complex than
that of a router or switch. Typically, a gateway must convert one
protocol stack into another.

Examples..
 A gateway may connect an AppleTalk network to nodes on a
DECnet network
 A very popular example is connecting a Local Area Network or
Wireless LAN to the Internet or other Wide Area Network. In this
case the gateway connects an IPX/SPX (the LAN) to a TCP/IP
network (the Internet).

67
Connecting IP Networks

 Gateways that connect two IP-based networks, like TCP/IP with

IPX/SPX, have two IP addresses, one on each network. An address like
192.168.1.xxx is a Local Area Network address, and is the address to
which traffic is sent from the LAN. The other IP address is the Wide
Area Network address, this is the address to which traffic is sent
coming from the WAN. When this is the Internet, that address is
usually assigned by an ISP.
 When talking about the gateway IP address, commonly the LAN-
address of the gateway is meant.
 The addresses of computers connected to the LAN are hidden behind
the gateway. That is, the WAN can only see the gateway's IP address.
To regulate traffic between the WAN and the LAN, the gateway
commonly performs Network Address Translation (NAT), presenting
all of the LAN traffic to the WAN as coming from the gateway's WAN
IP address and doing packet sorting and distribution of return WAN
traffic to the local network.

68
QoS Gateway

DiffServ
Server

computer

Laptop QoS Gateway

IntServ
Fax

PDA

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
* 8 #

HUB/MAU NIC

IP phone
% UTILIZATION

TAB
IEEE 802
QoS
GD RE I F
JA KB LC ENTER
RUN
M7 N8 O9 PRINT
GD GD GD HELP
BNC
4Mb/s GD T2 U3 ALPHA
V0 WX
. YZ SHIFT

embedded

Different Hosts/ Different QoS-

Applications Enabled Networks
69
 Load Balancer
 In computing, load balancing is a technique (usually
performed by load balancers) to spread work between many
computers, processes, disks or other resources in order to get
optimal resource utilization and decrease computing time.

 A load balancer can be used to increase the capacity of a

server farm beyond that of a single server. It can also allow
the service to continue even in the face of server down time
due to server failure or server maintenance.

 A load balancer consists of a virtual server (also referred to as

vserver or VIP) which, in turn, consists of an IP address and
port. This virtual server is bound to a number of physical
services running on the physical servers in a server farm.

70
 These physical services contain the physical server's IP address and port. A
client sends a request to the virtual server, which in turn selects a physical
server in the server farm and directs this request to the selected physical
server. Load balancers are sometimes referred to as "directors"; while
originally a marketing name chosen by various companies, it also reflects
the load balancer's role in managing connections between clients and
servers.
 Different virtual servers can be configured for different sets of physical
services, such as TCP and UDP services in general. Protocol- or
application-specific virtual servers that may be supported include HTTP,
FTP, SSL, SSL BRIDGE, SSL TCP, NNTP, SIP, and DNS.
 The load balancing methods manage the selection of an appropriate
physical server in a server farm.
 Load balancers also perform server monitoring of services in a web server
farm. In case of failure of a service, the load balancer continues to perform
load balancing across the remaining services that are UP. In case of failure
of all the servers bound to a virtual server, requests may be sent to a
backup virtual server (if configured) or optionally redirected to a
configured URL. For example, a page on a local or remote server which
provides information on the site maintenance or outage.

71
 Among the server types that may be load balanced
are:
 Server farms
 Caches
 Firewalls
 Intrusion detection systems
 SSL offload or compression appliances
 Content Inspection servers (such as anti-virus, anti-
spam)
 In Global Server Load Balancing (GSLB) the load
balancer distributes load to a geographically distributed
set of server farms based on health, server load or
proximity

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Load Balancer features

 Secure Remote Access (SSL VPN):

 Distributed Denial of Service Attack (DDoS) Protection
 Compression
 TCP off Load
 Client Keep-alive
 TCP Buffering
 Consolidated Logging
 Application Caching
 TCP Compression
 Content Filtering
 Priority Queuing
 Content Switching
 Cache Redirection
 Global Server Load Balancing
 Link Load Balancing

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NetBIOS

> NetBIOS is an acronym for Network Basic Input/Output System. The

NetBIOS API allows applications on separate computers to communicate over a
local area network. It provides services related to the session layer of the
OSI model.

> NetBIOS name

> Each computer running Microsoft Windows has a NetBIOS name; you can
view/change it on the identification tab in Control Panel -> Network. Various
services & client tools, including Network Neighborhood and NET USE, use
NetBIOS names. The NetBIOS name is specified when Windows networking is
installed/configured. In order to connect to a computer running TCP/IP via its
NetBIOS name, the name must be resolved to an IP address (the NetBIOS
name-IP address resolution is often done by WINS - NetBIOS Name Server). A
computer's NetBIOS name is often the same as that computer's host name (see
below), but it doesn't have to be

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Host name vs. Net bios Name

 A Windows machine's NetBIOS name is not to be confused with the

computer's host name.
 Each computer running TCP/IP (whether it's a Windows machine or not)
has a host name (also sometimes called a machine name).
 You can view/change it on the DNS tab in Control Panel -> Network ->
TCP/IP -> Properties.
 Host names are used by applications such as telnet, ftp, web browsers, etc.
 In order to connect to a computer running the TCP/IP protocol using its
HOST name, the host name must be resolved into an IP Address (the host
name or FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name)-IP address resolution is
typically done by something called DNS - Domain Name System/Service).
 Changing a computer's Host name does not change its NetBIOS name.

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End of Session 1

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Questions

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