FLUID MECHANICS

Introduction and Basic Concepts

 Fluid Mechanics is that branch of

science which deals with behaviour of
the fluids at rest as well as in motion
and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
FLUID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION
FLUID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION
FLUID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION
 FLUID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES:
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
■Understand the basic concepts of fluid mechanics
■Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice
■Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner
■Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision,
and significant digits, and recognize the
importance of dimensional homogeneity in
engineering calculations
Mechanics is the oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces. The
branch of mechanics that deals with bodies
at rest is called statics, while the branch
that deals with bodies in motion is called
dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as
the science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries.
FLUID MECHANICS INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics can we divided
into 3 divisions:
Hydrostatics: that studies the mechanics of
fluids at absolute and relative rest.
Kinematics: deals with translation, rotation and
deformation of fluid without considering the
force and energy causing such a motion.
Dynamics: that prescribes the relation between
velocities and acceleration and the forces which
are exerted by or upon the moving fluids.
 Fluid Mechanics Overview

Fluid Mechanics

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

F  0i  F  0 , Flows
i

Water, Oils, Stability

Air, He, Ar,
N2, etc. Alcohols, Pressure Buoyancy Compressible/
etc.
Incompressible
Laminar/
Surface
Turbulent
Tension
Steady/Unsteady
Compressibility Density Viscosity Vapor Viscous/Inviscid
Pressure
Chapter 1: Introduction Fluid Dynamics:
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Rest of Course
What is Fluid ?
Matter exist in two principal forms:

• Solid
• Fluids

Fluids are further sub-divided into:

• Liquid
• Gas
What Is a Fluid?
You will recall from physics that a substance
exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and
gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as
plasma.)
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as
a fluid.
Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied
shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its
shape. A solid can resist an applied shear stress by
deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously under
the influence of a shear stress, no matter how small.
 Characteristics of Fluids
• Gas or liquid state
• “Large” molecular spacing relative to a solid
• “Weak” intermolecular cohesive forces
• Can not resist a shear stress in a stationary
state
• Will take the shape of its container
• Generally considered a continuum
• Viscosity distinguishes different types of fluids
FIGURE 1–5
The arrangement of atoms in different phases:
(a) molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid,
(b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
phase, and
(c) individual molecules move about at random in the gas
phase.
For all practical purposes , the
liquids and solids can be regarded as
incompressible.This means that
pressure and temperature have
practically no effect on them. Eg
Water, Kerosene,petrol etc.
But Gases are readily compressible fluids.
They expand infinitely in the absence of
pressure and contract easily under
pressure. Eg air ,ammonia etc.
 APPLICATION AREAS OF
FLUID MECHANICS
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

It is important to develop a good understanding of the

basic principles of fluid mechanics, since fluid
mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities
and in the design of modern engineering systems from
vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft.

On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major

part in the design and analysis of aircraft, boats,
submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines,
biomedical devices, cooling systems for electronic
components, and transportation systems for moving
water, crude oil, and natural gas.
FIGURE 1–7

Fluid dynamics is
used extensively in
the design of
artificial hearts.
Shown here is the
Penn State Electric
Total Artificial Heart.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS1
One of the first engineering problems humankind
faced as cities were developed was the supply of
water for domestic use and irrigation of crops.

Segment of Pergamon pipeline.

Each clay pipe section was
13 to 18 cm in diameter.

Hellenistic city of Pergamon in

present-day Turkey.
FIGURE 1–10
A mine hoist powered
by a reversible water
wheel.
 - The Roman aqueducts, some of which are still in use,
are the best known examples.

-The earliest recognized contribution to fluid mechanics

theory was made by the Greek mathematician
Archimedes (285–212 bc). He formulated and applied
the buoyancy principle in history’s first nondestructive
test to determine the gold content of the crown of King
Hiero I.
- During the Middle Ages, the application of fluid machinery
slowly but steadily expanded.

- Elegant piston pumps were developed for dewatering

mines, and the watermill and windmill were perfected to grind
grain, forge metal, and for other tasks.
The Renaissance brought continued development of
fluid systems and machines, but more importantly, the
scientific method was perfected and adopted
throughout Europe.
Simon Stevin (1548–1617),
Galileo Galilei(1564–1642),
Edme Mariotte (1620–1684), and
Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647)
were among the first to apply the method to fluids as they
investigated hydrostatic pressure distributions and vacuums.

That work was integrated and refined by the brilliant

mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). The
Italian monk, Benedetto Castelli (1577–1644) was the first
person to publish a statement of the continuity principle for
fluids.
 Besides formulating his equations of motion for solids, Sir
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) applied his laws to fluids and
explored fluid inertia and resistance, free jets, and viscosity.

 That effort was built upon by Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782),

a Swiss, and his associate Leonard Euler (1707–1783).

The dawn of the twentieth

century brought two
monumental developments.
First, in 1903, the self-taught
Wright brothers (Wilbur,
1867–1912; Orville,
1871–1948) invented the
airplane through application
of theory and determined
experimentation.
 The mid twentieth century could be considered a golden age of
fluid mechanics applications. Existing theories were adequate
for the tasks at hand, and fluid properties and parameters were
well defined. These supported a huge expansion of the
aeronautical, chemical, industrial, and water resources sectors;
each of which pushed fluid mechanics in new directions.

FIGURE 1–13
Old and new wind turbine technologies
north of Woodward, OK. The modern
turbines have 1.6 MW capacities.
Significance of Fluid Mechanics
• Design of wide range of hydraulic structures
(dams,canals) and machinery (
pumps,turbines).
• Fluidic control devices; both pneumatic and
hydraulic.
• Design and analysis of gas turbine , rocket
engine, super sonic aircrafts.
• Human circulatory system i.e the flow of blood
in veins and the pumping action of heart.
Problem-Solving Techniques
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

 The first step in learning any science is to grasp the

fundamentals and to gain a sound knowledge of it.
The next step is to master the fundamentals by
testing this knowledge. This is done by solving
significant real-world problems.
 Solving such problems, especially complicated ones,
requires a systematic approach.
By using a step-by-step approach, an engineer can reduce the
solution of a complicated problem into the solution of a series of
simple problems (Fig. 1–44). When you are solving a problem,
we recommend that you use the following steps zealously as
applicable. This will help you avoid some of the common pitfalls
associated with problem solving.
FIGURE 1–44
A step-by-step approach can greatly simplify problem
solving.
Step 1: Problem Statement
In your own words, briefly state the problem, the key information
given, and the quantities to be found. This is to make sure that
you understand the problem and the objectives before you
attempt to solve the problem.

Step 2: Schematic
Draw a realistic sketch of the physical system involved, and list
the relevant information on the figure. The sketch does not have to
be something elaborate, but it should resemble the actual system
and show the key features. Indicate any energy and mass
interactions with the surroundings. Listing the given information on
the sketch helps one to see the entire problem at once. Also,
check for properties that remain constant during a process
(such as temperature during an isothermal process), and indicate
them on the sketch.
Step 3: Assumptions and
Approximations

State any appropriate assumptions and

approximations made to simplify the
problem to make it possible to obtain a
solution. Justify the questionable
assumptions. Assume reasonable values
for missing quantities that are necessary.
For example, in the absence of specific
data for atmospheric pressure, it can be
taken to be 1 atm. However, it should be
noted in the analysis that the atmospheric
FIGURE 1–45
pressure decreases with increasing The assumptions made
elevation. For example, it drops to 0.83 while solving
atm in Denver (elevation 1610 m) an engineering problem
must be
(Fig. 1–45). reasonable and justifiable
Step 4: Physical Laws
Apply all the relevant basic physical laws and principles (such as
the conservation of mass), and reduce them to their simplest form
by utilizing the assumptions made. However, the region to which a
physical law is applied must be clearly identified first. For
example, the increase in speed of water flowing through a nozzle
is analyzed by applying conservation of mass between the inlet
and outlet of the nozzle.

Step 5: Properties
Determine the unknown properties at known states necessary to
solve the problem from property relations or tables. List the
properties separately, and indicate their source, if applicable.
Step 6: Calculations
Substitute the known quantities into the simplified relations and
perform the calculations to determine the unknowns. Pay
particular attention to the units and unit cancellations, and
remember that a dimensional quantity without a unit is
meaningless.
by copying all Also, don’tfrom
the digits givethe
a false implication
screen of high precision
of the calculator—round
the final results to an appropriate number of significant digits
Step 7: Reasoning,
Verification, and Discussion

Check to make sure that the results

obtained are reasonable and
intuitive, and verify the validity of the
questionable assumptions. Repeat
the calculations that resulted in FIGURE 1–46
unreasonable values. For example, The results
obtained from an
under the same test conditions the
Engineering
aerodynamic drag acting on a car analysis must be
should not increase after checked
streamlining the shape of the car for reasonableness.
(Fig. 1–46).
Also, point out the significance of the results, and discuss their
implications. State the conclusions that can be drawn from the
results, and any recommendations that can be made from them.
Emphasize the limitations under which the results are applicable,
and caution against any possible misunderstandings and using
the results in situations where the underlying assumptions do
not apply.
For example, if you determined that using a larger-diameter pipe
in a proposed pipeline will cost an additional $5000 in materials,
but it will reduce the annual pumping costs by $3000, indicate that
the larger-diameter pipeline will pay for its cost differential from
the electricity it saves in less than two years.

However, also state that only additional material costs associated

with the larger-diameter pipeline are considered in the analysis.
 Keep in mind that the solutions you present to your
instructors, and any engineering analysis presented to
others, is a form of communication. Therefore neatness,
organization, completeness, and visual appearance are
of utmost importance for maximum effectiveness (Fig 1–
47). Besides, neatness also serves as a great checking
tool since it is very easy to spot errors and
inconsistencies in neat work. Carelessness and skipping
steps to save time often end up costing more time and
unnecessary anxiety.
FIGURE 1–47
Neatness and organization are highly valued by employers
 The approach described here is used in the
solved example problems with out explicitly stating
each step, as well as in the Solutions Manual of this
text.
o For some problems, some of the steps may not be
applicable or necessary. For example, often it is not
practical to list the properties separately. However,
we cannot overemphasize the importance of a
logical and orderly approach to problem solving.
o Most difficulties encountered while solving a
problem are not due to a lack of knowledge; rather,
they are due to a lack of organization. You are
strongly encouraged to follow these steps in
problem solving until you develop your own
approach that works best for you.
ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND SIGNIFICANT
DIGITS
In engineering calculations, the supplied information is not
known to more than a certain number of significant digits,
usually three digits.

Regardless of the system of units employed, engineers must

be aware of three principles that govern the proper use of
numbers: accuracy, precision, and significant digits.
 For engineering measurements, they are defined
as follows:

Accuracy error (inaccuracy) is the value of one reading minus

the true value. In general, accuracy of a set of measurements
refers to the closeness of the average reading to the true value.
Accuracy is generally associated with repeatable, fixed errors

Precision error is the value of one reading minus the average of

readings. In general, precision of a set of measurements refers to
the fineness of the resolution and the repeatability of the
instrument. Precision is generally associated with unrepeatable,
random errors.

Significant digits are digits that are relevant and meaningful.

FIGURE 1–50
Illustration of accuracy versus
precision. Shooter A is more precise,
but less accurate, while shooter B is
more accurate, but less precise.
A measurement or calculation can be very precise without being
very accurate, and vice versa.

For example, suppose the true value of wind speed is 25.00 m/s.
Two anemometers A and B take five wind speed readings each:
Anemometer A: 25.50, 25.69, 25.52, 25.58, and 25.61 m/s.
Average of all readings 5 25.58 m/s.
Anemometer B: 26.3, 24.5, 23.9, 26.8, and 23.6 m/s. Average of
all readings 5 25.02 m/s.

Clearly, anemometer A is more precise, since none of the

readings differs by more than 0.11 m/s from the average.
However, the average is 25.58 m/s, 0.58 m/s greater than the
true wind speed; this indicates significant bias error, also called
constant error or systematic error.
 On the other hand, anemometer B is not very precise,
since its readings swing wildly from the average; but its overall
average is much closer to the true value.

Hence, anemometer B is more accurate than anemometer A, at

least for this set of readings, even though it is less precise.
THANK YOU FOR BEING
ATTENTIVE