Schedule of Lecture

 April 23, 2008 (8:30AM-5PM)

 Load Flow Studies
 Load Flow Analysis
 System’s Loss Analysis

 Short Circuit Studies

 April 24, 2008 (7:30AM-3PM)
 Transformer Load Management
 Distribution Reliability Analysis
 Workshop
A. LOAD FLOW
STUDIES
 Topic Outline
 A.1 Introduction
 A.2 System Representation

 A.3 Bus Admittance Matrix

 A.4 Mathematical Formulation of Load

Flow Problem
 A.5 Power Flow Software

 A.6 Application: Radial Distribution Feeder

 A.7 Workshop on Load Flow Studies

A.1 Introduction: Typical Power
System
 Introduction…
 Requirementfor a successful power
system operation (Normal balanced
3-phase steady state conditions)
– Generation supplies demand plus losses
– Bus voltage magnitudes remain close to
rated values
– Generators operate within its power
limits
– Lines and Transformers are not
overloaded
 Introduction…
 LOAD FLOW
– Basic tool for investigating power system
operation under balanced 3-phase steady state
conditions
– Backbone of power system analysis and design
– Necessary for planning, operation, economic
scheduling and exchange of power between
utilities
– System is represented by an appropriate
model and a solution algorithm determine the
voltage profile in the system
 A.2 System Representation
 One-Line Diagram
– Simplified diagram of an electric system
which is indicated by single line and
standard symbols how the lines and
associated apparatus of the system are
connected together
– Supply in concise form the significant
information about the system
 One-Line Diagram

Apparatus Symbols
Impedance Diagram
Distribution Substation
Distribution
NPC

Substation: M

M M

DIST. X- DIST. X- DIST. X- DIST. X-

FORMERS FORMERS FORMERS FORMERS

LOADS LOADS LOADS LOADS

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3 Feeder 4

Simple Distribution Feeder
 System Representation..
 Per Unit System
– Per unit value of any quantity is the
ratio of the quantity to its base
expressed as a decimal
– Base quantities (3-phase):
 Power: MVA
 Voltage: KV(L-L)

 Current: kA

 Impedance: ohm
 System Representation..
 Advantages of Per Unit System
– Yields more meaningful and easily
correlated data
– Network calculations are done in a much
handier fashion with less chance of mix-
up between phase and line voltages,
single phase and three-phase powers,
and primary and secondary voltages
 System Representation..
 Example 1: Find the per unit value of the complex power (8+j6) MVA with a power base of 10 MVA

Sol: Sb = actual/base = (8+j6)/10

Sb = (0.8 + j0.6) p.u.

 Changing the base of per-unit quantities

Znew = [Zgiv][(KVbgiv/KVbnew)^2][MVAbnew/MVAbgiv]

 Example 2: The reactance of a generator(X) is given as 0.25p.u. based on generator’s nameplate

rating of 18 KV, 500 MVA. The base for calculations is 20 kV, 100 MVA. Find X on the new base
 System Representation..
 Buses Classification
Type 1: Swing Bus/Slack Bus
- corresponds to the generator that is
first to respond to any power mismatch
in the system
- voltage magnitude and phase angle
are specified in the load flow study
- phase angle serves as reference and is
normally set to zero
Type 2: Generator Bus
- buses to which the remaining generators in the
system are connected. Synchronous condensers
likewise fall under this category
- power and voltage magnitude are usually
specified
- voltage magnitude will be held constant for as
long as reactive power can support the voltage

Type 3: Load Buses

- buses having no active generation
- power and reactive power are specified
 Summary of Bus Types
Type 1: Swing Bus Type 2: Generator Bus

G Specify: V, ang G Specify: V, P

Unknown: P, Q Unknown: ang, Q
Type 3: Load Bus

G Specify: P, Q
Unknown: V, ang
 Load Models
 Loads are generally modeled by specifying the real
and reactive power that they draw from the system
under normal conditions where bus voltage is near
the nominal value

L
O S L = PL+ jQ L
A
D
 Transformer Models
 Three phase, two-winding transformers are
represented using their equivalent impedance.
 Transformer’s magnetizing reactance and core
loss are usually neglected
 Three-phase , three winding transformers are
represented using a star equivalent network
 For tap-changing under load(TCUL) transformers,
the position of the tap changer and the percent
voltage change per tap-setting must be specified
 Line Models
 Modeled as a nominal pi network
Bus p
zpq = rpq + j x Bus q
pq

yc /2 yc /2

Where:
zpq= per phase impedance of the line
y = shunt admittance which represents
c
capacitance to ground of line section
 z pq= r pq+ jx pq

p q q

TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER

zq

p zp
zr r

THREE WINDING TRANSFORMER

 Static Capacitors/Reactors Model
 Capacitors and reactors are used to alleviate
under-voltages and over-voltages, respectively
 Modeled as a constant impedance devices
 Shunt capacitors can be modeled by a constant
reactive power
 A.3 Bus Admittance Matrix
 Load flow studies are generally conducted using the bus-
admittance matrix, Ybus
 Ybus relates the currents injected into the system from
the buses to the bus voltages
I1

1 I2
System
2
In

+ + + n
E1 E2 En neutral
bus

An n-bus power system

  I1  Y11 Y12 . . Y1n   E1 
 I  Y Y  
. . Y2 n   E2  
  2 21 22

.  . . . . .  . 
    
.  . . . . .  . 
 I n  Yn1 Yn 2 . . Ynn   En 
[I] = [Ybus][E]
Where:
Ip = phasor current injected into bus p
Ep = phasor voltage-to-ground of bus p
Ypq = element of Ybus
 Formulation of Ybus
 Ifmutual inductance between lines
are neglected:
– Main diagonal element Ypp is equal to
the sum of all admittances connected to
bus p
– Off-diagonal element Ypq is equal to the
negative of the sum of all admittances
connecting buses p and q
 Formation of Ybus is the first step in
the load flow study
 A.4 Mathematical Formulation of
Load Flow Problem
 Current Equation:
n
I p  Yp1 E1  Y p 2 E2  ...  Y pn En   Y pq Eq
q 1

 Complex Power Injected into bus p:

n
Pp  jQ p  E p I *p  E p  Y pq* Eq* Can be solved
by numerical
q 1
method
(Newton-
Raphson)
 A.5 Power Flow Software
 Computes voltage magnitude and angle at each bus in a power system under
balanced three-phase steady state operation
 Bus voltages are then used to compute generator, line, and transformer loadings
 Input data for the program include bus, line, and transformer data which are
given in per-unit on a common MVA base
 Bus admittance matrix is calculated from the input data
 The program uses the newton-raphson iterative method for which the
termination is set when magnitudes of all power mismatches are less than a
tolerance level (say, 0.001) or when number of iterations exceeds a maximum
(say, 10)
 For single runs, starting values of bus voltages are set equal to those of swing
bus except for voltage-controlled bus
 For series of runs with input data changes, the final values of each run are used
as starting values for next run
 Bus output data include voltage magnitude and angle, real and reactive power of
each generator and load, and identification of buses with voltage magnitude
more than 5% above or below that of swing bus.
 Line data include real and reactive power flows entering in the line terminals and
identification of lines with MVA flows above their maximum ratings
 Other useful output include generation, load, and line loss totals, number of
iterations to converge, and total mismatches dP and dQ after convergence
Power Flow Main Menu
 Power Flow Bus Data

Power Flow Line Data

Power Flow Transformer Data

Power Flow Analysis Results
A.6 Application: Radial
Distribution Feeder
One Line Diagram
 Per Unit Quantities
Region 1 Transformer
VBase = 345 kV Resistance = 0
SBase = 10MVA Reactance = 0.2
ZBase = (345 kV)2 / (10 MVA) = 11902.5 ohms Conductance = 0
Susceptance = 0
Region 2 Maximum Power
Rating = 0.5
VBase = 13.8 kV Tap Setting = 1
SBase = 10 MVA
ZBase = (13.8 kV)2 / (10 MVA) = 19.044 ohms

Line 1 to Line 5 (Each Line is 2 km)

Resistance = 0.01995
Reactance = 0.03991
Conductance = 0
Susceptance = 0.000076
Maximum Power Rating = 0.5
 Per Unit Quantities
Bus 1 (Swing Bus)
Voltage Magnitude = 1
Phase Angle = 0
Generator Real Power = unknown
Generator Reactive Power = unknown
Load Real Power = 0
Load Reactive Power = 0

Bus 2 to Bus 7 (Load Buses)

Voltage Magnitude = 1
Phase Angle = 0
Generator Real Power = 0
Generator Reactive Power = 0
Load Real Power = 0.08
Load Reactive Power = 0.038
Input Data
 Bus Output Data

System’s Loss = 0.4907-0.48 = 0.0107 p.u. = 107 kW

Line Output Data
Transformer Output Data
 Output Results

Note: Voltage Limits and Maximum Ratings Exceeded!!

Power System Needs Correction!
Solution: Increase Transformer Tap Setting
from 1.0 to 1.03
Input Data
 Bus Output Data

System’s Loss = 0.49-0.48 =0.01 =100 kW

Line Output Data
Transformer Output Data
 Output Results

Before Tap Changing After Tap Changing

Note: Voltage Limits And Maximum Ratings Are Still Exceeded!!

System Still Needs Correction!
Solution: Install a 1980 kVAR Shunt Capacitor at Bus 2
 Input Data

Computation: 1980 kVAR / 10 MVA = 0.198 pu

0.038 pu – 0.198 pu = -0.16 pu
 Bus Output Data

System’s Loss = 0.4891-0.48 =0.0091 p.u. = 91 kW

Line Output Data
Transformer Output Data
Tap Changing Transformers

and

Shunt Capacitors
Tap Changing Transformers

• Different tap points are at different voltages.

• A tap point having a longer winding has a higher voltage.
 Shunt Capacitors

• Reactive Power increases the current flowing between the source and the load.
• Addition of a shunt capacitor decreases the reactive power drawn by the load
effectively decreasing the current flowing between the source and the load.
 To Increase the Voltage Magnitude at Bus 4 by 5%,

 Install a 1560 kVAR shunt capacitor at Bus 4

Computation:

At Bus 4,
Load Reactive Power = (0.038 pu) – (1560
kVAR / 10 MVA)
= -0.118 pu
Input Data
 Bus Output Data

Percent Increase of Voltage Magnitude at Bus 4:

((1.0322 – 0.9859) / 0.9859) * 100 = 4.696% ≈ 5%
Line Output Data
Transformer Output Data
 A.7 Load Flow Workshop
 Draw the appropriate one line
diagram of your distribution system
 Input relevant data on POWER FLOW
software
 Run POWER FLOW for the 5 years
forecasted load obtained in the
previous workshop
 Analyze the results of each run and
give recommendations
B. SHORT CIRCUIT
STUDIES
 Topic Outline
 B.1 Introduction
 B.2 Short Circuit Study Procedure

 B.3 Short Circuit Study Example

 B.4 POWER WORLD Software

 B.5 Workshop on Short Circuit

Studies
 B.1 Introduction
 Current flowing in different parts of a
system immediately after a fault differs
from that flowing a few cycles later, just
before circuit breakers are called upon to
open the line on both sides of the fault
 Short circuit studies are important on
selection of CB’s, switchgear and settings
of relays which control the CB’s
 Digital computer’s are used effectively in
the calculation of 3-phase short circuit at
various points in the system
B.2 Short Circuit Study Procedure
 Knowledge of the One-Line and
Impedance Diagram
– Power system operates under balanced steady-
state conditions before fault occurs
– Prefault load current is neglected. Because of
this, the internal voltages of all machines are
equal to the prefault voltage Vf. Usually, Vf is
set to 1
– Transformer winding resistances and shunt
admittances are neglected
– Line series resistances and shunt admittances
are neglected
– All non-rotating impedance loads are neglected
 Thevenin’s Equivalent
– Powerful circuit analysis tool based on the fact that any
active linear network, however complex, can be
represented by a single voltage source equal to the
open circuit voltage across any two terminal of interest,
in series with the equivalent impedance of the network
viewed from the same two terminals with all sources in
the network in activated (that is, voltage sources
shorted and current sources opened)

20 5 4 6
6
ohm ohm
=
ohm ohm ohm

50V
+ 25V
+ 30V
+
- - -
 Types of Shunt Faults:
 3-Phase Faults

 Single-Line to Ground
Fault

 Double-Line to Ground
Fault

 Line-Line Fault
 Three-Phase Short Circuit Study
 For 3-phase faults, the fault currents are
balanced and have only a positive-
sequence network when calculating
three phase fault current

If
Zf

If = Vf/Zf
Vf
+
-
B.3 Short Circuit Study Example
Utility: Available fault
current1000MVA@34.5KV
Sb = 10 MVA
51

52

3750 kVA, 34.5/4.18 kV,

z=6%
Y
52
51
400 mm2: 5 KV
Cu conductor
(Amp=665A) 50/51

Ifl= 150A
38 mm2: Cu conductor M
(Amp=190 A)
Ilr = 250A
 Solution:
 Per unit reactances:
 Utility = 10/1000 = 0.01 p.u.
 X’mer = 0.06*(10/3.75) = 0.16 p.u.
 Available 3-phase currents:
 34.5 kV: 16,734.36 A
 4.16 kV: 8,163.8894 A
 CT Selection
 Full load amperes
 34.5 kV: 62.755 A
 4.16 kV: 520.448 A
 CT Ratios to be used
 34.5 kV: 150:5 , CTR = 30
 4.16 kV: 1000:5, CTR = 200
 Motor: 250:5, CTR = 50
 Solution..
 Transformer Protection
 Inrush Point:
 Inrush (0.1 S) = 12Ifl = 753.064 A
 PEC Rule = 6Ifl
 I(PEC) = 376.533 A
 Cable Protection
 Ampacity
 4.16 kV (feeder)…665 A
 4.16 kV (feeder)…190 A
 SC Withstand Note:
 4.16 kV (feeder)…8200 A @ 48.5 sec (I)^2/cmil = 0.0297*
 4.16 kV (feeder)…665 A @ 0.75 sec log[(234+T2)/(234+T1)]
 Motor Protection T2 = 250C ; T1 = 75C
 Overload: 1.15Ifl = 172.5 A
 Starting Current: Ilr = 850 A
Short Circuit Study WorkShop
 Problem:
 A. Calculate the actual fault current for a
3-phase to ground fault at all buses
 B. Open the POWER World Software and
input the bus, line and transformer data
 C. Solve and animate the Load Flow
 D. Calculate the fault current for a 3-
phase to ground fault at all buses using
POWER WORLD
 Compare results in A and D by computing
its MAPE
B.3 POWER WORLD SOFTWARE