NMAM Institute of Technology

Nitte, Karkala

SMART ELECTRIC GRID[15EE815 ]

By
Mr. Dinesh Shetty
Assistant Professor, Electrical and Electronics Engineering
NMAMIT, NITTE
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Course objectives
1. To study the Information and Communication Technologies related to smart
grid.
2. To understand the Information security and different sensing and automation
techniques.

3. To know the principles of Distribution management systems and transmission

system operation for smart equipment’s.

4. To study the power quality issues and their management in smart grid.

5. To know the importance of micro grids and distributed energy resources.

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Unit - I
The Smart Grid: Introduction, Overview of the technologies required for the
Smart Grid.
Information and Communication Technologies: Data communication,
Switching techniques, Communication channels, Layered architecture and
protocols Ethernets, Wireless Lan, Bluetooth and Zigbee communication
technology.

Unit - II
Information security for the Smart Grid – Introduction, Encryption and
decryption, Authentication, Digital signatures, Cyber security standards
Sensing, Measurement, Control and Automation Technologies: Smart
metering - An overview of the hardware used, Communications infrastructure
and protocols for smart metering.
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Unit - III
Distribution automation equipment and Management systems –
Introduction, Data sources and associated external systems, Modelling and
analysis tools,
Transmission system operation - Phasor measurement units, Wide area
applications

Unit - IV
Power electronics in Smart Grid – Introduction, Renewable energy generation,
Photovoltaic systems, Wind, hydro and tidal energy systems, Fault current limiting

Unit - V
Energy storage – Introduction, Energy storage technologies, Shunt compensator
with energy storage, Case study
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Text Books
1. “Smart Grid - Technology And Applications”, Janaka Ekanayake, Kithsiri
Liyanage, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, 2012

Reference Books
1. “Power Electronics in Smart Electrical Energy Networks”, Ryszard Strzelecki,
Grzegorz Benysek, Springer Publication, ISBN-13: 9781848003170, 2008
2. “The Smart Grid: Enabling Energy Efficiency and Demand Response” Clark
W. Gellings, P.E, The Fairmont Press, Inc.2009
3. “SMART GRID - Fundamentals of Design and Analysis” James Momoh, IEEE
Press, A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION - 2012
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• United States National Academy of Engineering set about identifying the single
most important engineering achievement of the 20th century.

• The Academy compiled an estimable list of twenty accomplishments which

have affected virtually everyone in the developed world.

• The internet took thirteenth place on this list, and ‘highways’ eleventh.

• Sitting at the top of the list was electrification as made possible by the electric
power grid, ‘the most significant engineering achievement of the 20th Century.”’

• Indeed, the power industry has been at the forefront of taking advantage of
advanced computer, communication, and control technologies throughout the
20th century.
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Introduction

• Concept of Smart Grid started with the idea of Advanced metering infrastructure with the
aim of improving demand side management and energy efficiency and constructing self
healing reliable grid protection.

• Initially perceived scope was later expanded to cope up to the new requirements and
demands
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Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) are systems that measure, collect, and
analyze energy usage, and communicate with metering devices such as electricity
meters, gas meters, heat meters, and water meters, either on request or on a
schedule.

•These systems include hardware, software, communications, consumer energy

displays and controllers, customer associated systems, Meter Data Management
(MDM) software, and supplier business systems
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EXISTING GRID SMART GRID

• ELECTROMECHANICAL DIGITAL
• ONE WAY COMMUNICATION TWO WAY COMMUNICATION
• CENTRALIZED GENERATION DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
• FEW SENSORS SENSORS THROUGHOUT
• MANUAL
MONITORING/RESTORATION SELF-MONITORING/SELF-HEALING
• FAILURES AND BLACKOUTS ADAPTIVE AND ISLANDING
• FEW CUSTOMER CHOICES MANY CUSTOMER CHOICES
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Motivation For Smart Grid

1. Aging and underinvested infrastructure: Much of the existing power system
infrastructure dates back to the 1950s or even earlier and is reaching the end of its
useful life.

2. Electricity demand throughout the world is steadily increasing, causing high power
system loading resulting in overstressed system equipment.

3. Public interest groups are putting pressure on politicians to reduce CO2 emissions
through the adoption of alternative energy sources and put in place regulations to
increase energy efficiency.

4. Increasing distance between generation sites and load centers.

5. The changing mix of power generation operating central power plants in parallel with
large numbers of small, decentralized (distributed) generation.

6. Additional and new consumption models (smart plugin vehicles, smart homes (SHs), and
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Smart Grid
HOW SHOULD I DEFINE
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• An IEC document released in May 2010 suggested that “smart grid” is used as a
marketing term rather than a technical definition.

• EPRI website offers a succinct definition that states “A Smart Grid is one that
incorporates information and communications technology into every aspect of
electricity generation, delivery and consumption in order to minimize environmental
impact, enhance markets, improve reliability and service, and reduce costs and improve
efficiency”
IEC - International Electro-technical Committee
EPRI – Electric Power Research Institute
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Thus Smart Grid can be defines as……

• An electric system that uses information, two-way, cyber-secure communication
technologies and computational intelligence in an integrated fashion across electricity
generation, transmission, substations, distribution and consumption to achieve a system
that is clean, safe, secure, reliable, resilient, efficient and sustainable.

• Smart grid is fueled by the confluence and advancement of technologies. It is hence

self-healing, adaptive, interactive and secure from attacks, accommodates all generation
and storage options and supports bi-directional energy flow
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Contents
1. Introduction.
2. History
3. Why smart Grid?
4. What is the smart Grid?
5. Early smart Grid Initiatives.
6. Overview of the technologies required for the smart grid.
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TRANSMISSION GRID
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Introduction:

 Good communication links between the generating units and the transmission
grid for secure operation. (Wave trap)

 The distribution system lacks real time monitoring.

 Minimal interaction between the local loads and power system other than
supplying the demanded energy.

 Revolutionizing the electrical power system by using ICT to have continuous

monitoring and control of power system is the need.
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WHY SMART GRID?
 Power sector can be de-carbonized at a realistic cost if it is monitored and
controlled effectively.

 Ageing assets and lack of circuit capacity.

• Replacement
• Rerouting

 Thermal Constraints
• Limitation to the power transfer capacity.
• Excess of thermal rating leads to deterioration of insulation.
• Thermal constraints change through the year.
• Use of dynamic ratings can increase the circuit capacity at times.

 Operational Constraints:
• Voltage and frequency limitation.
• Distributed generation
• Maintaining the supply-demand balance and system frequency
within the limits becomes difficult.
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 Security of the supply:

 Most reliable electricity supply is the requirement of modern
society as more and more critical loads are connected.

 Use of redundant circuits to improve the reliability .

 Intelligent approach being used by SMART grid for post fault

configuration.
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14 pilots supported by Govt. of India as “Proof of
Concept”
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Understanding Smart Grid

– System (G, T, D) with an advanced two-way communications
system
– Enables real-time monitoring and control
– Provide greater visibility and transparency
– Consequently, enables cost reduction and efficiency
improvement
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According to the US Department of Energy :

“A smart grid uses digital technology to improve reliability,

security, and efficiency (both economic and energy) of the
electric system from large generation, through the delivery
systems to electricity consumers and a growing number of
distributed-generation and storage resources.”
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Early Smart Grid initiatives

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Characteristics of Active Distributed networks:

 The power flow is not unidirectional. The direction of power

flows and the voltage magnitudes on the network depend
on both the demand and the injected generation .

 the distributed generators give rise to a wide range of fault

currents and hence complex protection and coordination
settings are required to protect the network.

 reactive power flow on the network can be independent of

the active power flows

 many types of DGs are interfaced through power electronics

and may inject harmonics into the network
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Distribution Management System Controller (DMSC):

 assesses the network conditions and takes action to control the

network voltages and flows.

 Obtains measurements from the network and sends signals to the

devices under its control.

 Control actions may be a transformer tap operation, altering the

DG output and injection/absorption of reactive power.
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CONTROL SCHEDULES

 Alter the reference of an On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) transformer/voltage

regulator relay;

 Request the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or the governor of a synchronous

generator to alter the reactive/active power of the machine;

 Send signals to a wind farm Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
system to decrease the wind farm output power;

 Shed or connect controllable loads on the network;

 Increase or decrease the settings of any reactive power compensation devices;

 Reconfigure the network by opening and closing circuit open points.

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Overview of the technologies required for the Smart

Grid

1. Information and communications technologies: These include:

(a) two-way communication technologies to provide connectivity between different

components in the power system and loads;

(b) open architectures for plug-and-play of home appliances; electric vehicles and
micro generation;

(c) communications, and the necessary software and hardware to provide

customers with greater information, enable customers to trade in energy markets
and enable customers to provide demand-side response;

(d) software to ensure and maintain the security of information and standards to
provide scalability and interoperability of information and communication systems.
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Sensing, measurement, control and automation technologies: These include:
(a) Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED) to provide advanced protective relaying,
measurements, fault records and event records for the power system;

(b) Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) and Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control
(WAMPAC) to ensure the security of the power system;

(c) Integrated sensors, measurements, control and automation systems and information
and communication technologies to provide rapid diagnosis and timely response to
any event in different parts of the power system.

(d) smart appliances, communication, controls and monitors to maximise safety, comfort,
convenience, and energy savings of homes;

(e) smart meters, communication, displays and associated software to allow customers
to have greater choice and control over electricity and gas use. They will provide
consumers with accurate bills, along with faster and easier supplier switching, to give
consumers accurate real-time information on their electricity and gas use and other
related information and to enable demand management and demand side participation
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Power electronics and energy storage: These include:
(a) High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission and back-to-back schemes and Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) to enable long distance transport and integration of
renewable energy sources;

(b) different power electronic interfaces and power electronic supporting devices to
provide efficient connection of renewable energy sources and energy storage devices
;
(c) series capacitors, Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) and other FACTS
devices to provide greater control over power flows in the AC grid;

(d) HVDC, FACTS and active filters together with integrated communication and
control to ensure greater system flexibility, supply reliability and power quality;

(e) power electronic interfaces and integrated communication and control to support
system operations by controlling renewable energy sources, energy storage and
consumer loads;

(f) energy storage to facilitate greater flexibility and reliability of the power system.
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Information and Communication Technologies

Data Communication

• Dedicated and shared communication channels

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• Differential protection scheme

• IED information should be communicated effectively between the different

IED devices(Power line is communication channel).

• Modulate the BIT stream from IED

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

and Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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Switching techniques
• Establish a link between a Source and a Destination and to transmit data
across a shared medium communication channel.

• A node could be a network adaptor, a Switch, or a Router

• Hosts connected to nodes, are able to exchange information between them

through the communication network

• TYPES:
 Circuit switching
 Message switching
 Packet switching
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Communication channels
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Bandwidth/Bit rate:

Attenuation:

Noise

Signal propagation delay:

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Wired communication

• Open wire, coaxial cable

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If the PLC equipment uses a carrier frequency of 100 kHz and the value of
the inductance in the line trap is 0.25 mH, what is the value of the capacitance
required?
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2.Twisted pair

• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are used in

telecommunication services.

• Copper cable with PVC insulation.

• 1UTP for voice communication,2 UTP for data communication

upto 4 Mbps,3,4,5 UTP cables for data transmission
upto 10Mbps,16Mbps,100Mpbs.

• A Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) allows the transmission of data

over ordinary copper twisted pair telephone lines at high data rates
to provide broadband services
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Coaxial cables

• shielded copper wire is used as the communication medium.

• The outer coaxial conductor provides effective shielding from

external interference.

• Bit rates up to 10 Mbps are possible over several

metres.

Example:
According to Shannon’s capacity formula [5], the maximum
channel capacity in bps is given by B log2[1 + (signal
power)/(noise power)], where B is the bandwidth of a channel in
Hz. Compare the maximum channel capacity of twisted copper
and coaxial cables. For copper cable, the bandwidth is 250 kHz
and the SNR is 20 dB. For coaxial cable, the bandwidth is 150
MHz and the SNR is 22 dB.
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Optical fibre

Optical fibres. Source: OPGW cable picture, courtesy of TEPCO, Japan

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• Optical fibre transmission is used both inside substations and for long-distance
transmission of data.

• Optical fibres are often embedded in the stranded conductors of the shield
(ground) wires of overhead lines. OPtical Ground Wires (OPGW)

• An optical fibre consists of three components: core, cladding and buffer

• The thin glass centre of the fibre where the light travels is called
the core.
• The outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the
light back into the core is called the cladding.

• to protect the optical surface from moisture and damage, it is

coated with a layer of buffer coating.
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• OFC has greater bandwidth.

• Less susceptible to signal degradation than copper wire.
• light signals from one fibre do not interfere with those of other fibres in the
same cable
• optical fibre transmission is immune to external electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
• cost, the special termination requirements and its vulnerability (it is more
fragile than coaxial cable)-DISAVANTAGES
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By applying the law of refraction at surface A, the following equation can

be obtained

where θa is the angle of acceptance n1, n2 and n0 are the refractive indices of core,
cladding and air

Since, for the free space n0 = 1,

sin θa = n1 cos θ1
At the core–cladding surface:
• If the light signal takes path 1 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 and the signal will not be
received at the Destination.

• For critical reflection (path 2), n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin π/2 = n2.

• Path 3 shows reflection (essential to guide a signal along the core of an optical
fibre cable from Source to Destination):
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Radio communication
• Radio communication may be multipoint or point-to-point, operating typically
either at UHF frequencies (between 300 MHz and 3 GHz) or microwave
frequencies (between 3 and 30 GHz).
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Carrier current has a frequency range of 30 to 200 kHz in USA and 80 to 500 kHz
in UK.

Coupling capacitor connects the carrier equipment to the transmission line. The coupling
capacitor’s capacitance is of such a value that it offers low impedance to carrier
frequency (1/ωC) but high impedance to power frequency (50 Hz).

The purpose of the line tuner in conjunction with the coupling capacitor is to provide low
impedance path for the carrier energy to the transmission line and a high impedance
path to the power frequency energy.
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Communication Technologies for the Smart Grid

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Communication technologies

• IEEE 802 series

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Ethernet
• Most widely used for wired LAN.
• Installation cost is low and easy to upgrade
• Frame based communication
• 10BASE-T,10BSE-2,100BASE-T
• 1,10,100-Bitrates in Mbps
• Last number or letter indicates length of the cable
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Public key encryption

• Symmetric Key encryption algorithms require a secure initial exchange of
secret Keys between sender and receiver.

• Public Key encryption does not require secure initial exchanges of secret
Keys between the sender and receiver.

• Public key algorithms involve a pair of Keys called the public Key and the
private Key

• Each user announces its public Key but retains its private Key
confidentially.

• If user A wishes to send a message to user B, then A encrypts the message

using B’s public Key.
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RSA (this acronym stands for Rivest, Shamir and Adleman who first publicly
described it) is a widely used public Key algorithm
1. Choose two distinct prime numbers p and q.
2. Compute n = p × q.
3. Compute z = (p – 1)(q – 1).
4. Choose an integer e such that it is relatively prime to z (both e and z
have no common factors).
5. Find d such that e × d ≡1 (mod z) (in other words e × d − 1 should be an
integer multiple of z).
6. The pair (e, n) is then released as the public Key and pair (d, n) is used as
the private Key.
7. The encryption of message M gives the Cipher text C = M^e × Mod(n).
8. The decryption is done by computing M = C^d × Mod(n).
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Example: Let’s consider that user B wishes to transmit character ‘D’ to user A.
The following is the steps involved in the RSA algorithm:

1. A selects p and q. Assume that he chooses p = 11 and q = 3, p and q are

prime numbers.

2. A computes n = p × q = 33

3. A computes z = (p − 1) × (q − 1) = 20.

4. A chooses e = 7 which is relatively prime to z = 20.

5. A finds d = 3 that makes 3 × 7 = 21 ≡1 (mod 20).

6. A publishes pair (7, 33) as the public Key.

7. B uses A’s public Key (33, 7) and computes C = 4^7 Mod 33 = 16 and
transmits 16 to A (D is the 4th character in the alphabet).

8. A computes M = 16^3 Mod 33 = 4 (A obtains D).

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Authentication
Authentication is required to verify the identities of communicating parties to avoid
imposters gaining access to information.

Authentication based on shared secret key

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Authentication based on key distribution centre

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Cyber security standards

IEEE 1686: IEEE Standard for substation intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) cyber
security capabilities.(North America Electric Reliability Corporation – Critical
Infrastructure Protection).
• be protected by unique user ID and password combinations.
• The password should be a minimum of 8 characters with at least one upper and
lower cases, one number and one alpha-numeric character.
• not have any means to defeat or circumvent the user created ID/password. The
mechanisms such as “embedded master password, chip-embedded diagnostic
routines that automatically run in the event of hardware or software failures,
hardware bypass of passwords such as jumpers and switch settings” shall not be
present.
• support different level of utilisation of IED functions and features based on
individual user-created ID/password combinations.
• “have a time-out feature that automatically logs out a user.
Layering in Networked computing
 Learning outcomes

 Understand the need of layering in Networked computing

 Understand the OSI model and the tcp/ip model
– Understand the function protocols and their role at each
layer.
 TCP protocol
 UDP protocol
 Understand the role of header in communication between
layers
 Understand how data sent from one host arrive to the target
host.
Why a layered model?

– Easier to teach communication process.

– Speeds development, changes in one layer does not
affect how the other levels works.
– Standardization across manufactures.
– Allows different hardware and software to work together
– Reduces complexity
The OSI Reference Model
The OSI Model

 OSI “ Open Systems Interconnection".

 OSI model was first introduced in 1984 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
– Outlines WHAT needs to be done to send data from one computer
to another.
– Not HOW it should be done.
– Protocols stacks handle how data is prepared for transmittal (to be
transmitted)
 In the OSI model, The specification needed
– are contained in 7 different layers that interact with each other.
What is “THE MODEL?”

 Commonly referred to as the OSI reference model.

 The OSI model

– is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets
from one user’s computer to another.

– It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our

hardware and software talks nicely to each other.

– It aids standardization of networking technologies by providing

an organized structure for hardware and software developers to
follow, to insure there products are compatible with current and
future technologies.
What Each Layer Does

2
 Gives end-user applications access
to network resources

 Where is it on my computer?
– Workstation or Server Service in
MS Windows

3
Presentation Layer

3
Session Layer

 Allows applications to
maintain an ongoing session

 Where is it on my
computer?
– Workstation and Server
Service (MS)
– Windows Client for
NetWare (NetWare)

3
Transport Layer

 Provides reliable data

delivery
 It’s the TCP in TCP/IP

 Receives info from upper

layers and segments it into
packets

 Can provide error detection

and correction 3
Figure 2.9 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
 Network Layer

 Provides network-wide addressing

and a mechanism to move packets
between networks (routing)

 Responsibilities:
– Network addressing
– Routing

 Example:
– IP from TCP/IP 3
 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for

the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Network Addresses

 Network-wide addresses
 Used to transfer data across subnets
 Used by routers for packet forwarding
 Example:
– IP Address
 Where is it on my computer?
– TCP/IP Software
Data Link Layer

 Places data and retrieves it

from the physical layer and
provides error detection
capabilities

3
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
 Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

 MAC (Media Access Control)

– Gives data to the NIC
– Controls access to the media through:
 CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection
 Token passing

 LLC (Logical Link Layer)

– Manages the data link interface (or Service Access Points
(SAPs))
– Can detect some transmission errors using a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). If the packet is bad the LLC will
request the sender to resend that particular packet.
Physical Layer

 Determines the specs for

all physical components
– Cabling
– Interconnect methods (topology
/ devices)
– Data encoding (bits to waves)
– Electrical properties
 Examples:
– Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) 3
– Wireless (IEEE 802.11b)
Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical Layer (cont’d)

 What are the Physical Layer components on my

computer?
 NIC
– Network Interface Card
– Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number
permanently burned into it at the manufacturer.
– The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a
computer
 Cabling
– Twister Pair
– Fiber Optic
– Coax Cable
 How Does It All Work Together

 Each layer contains a Protocol Data Unit

(PDU)
– PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact
between corresponding layers.

– Data is handled by the top three layers, then

Segmented by the Transport layer.

– The Network layer places it into packets and

the Data Link frames the packets for
transmission.

– Physical layer converts it to bits and sends it

out over the media.
2
– The receiving computer reverses the process
using the information contained in the PDU.
Figure 2.2 OSI layers
Data Encapsulation In TCP/IP
 At each layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack
 Outgoing data is packaged and identified for delivery to the layer
underneath
 PDU – Packet Data Unit – the “envelop” information attached to a
packet at a particular TCP/IP protocol
 e.g. header and trailer
 Header
 PDU’s own particular opening component
 Identifies the protocol in use, the sender and intended recipient
 Trailer (or packet trailer)
– Provides data integrity checks for the payload
Encapsulation example: E-mail
Encapsulation
Figure 2.3 An exchange using the OSI model
Figure 2.14 Summary of layers
 TCP/IP model development

 The late-60s The Defense Advance Research

Projects Agency (DARPA) originally developed
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense
department computer networks.
 The Internet, an International Wide Area Network,
uses TCP/IP to connect networks across the world.
4 layers of the TCP/IP model

 Layer 4: Application
 Layer 3: Transport
 Layer 2: Internet
 Layer 1: Network access

It is important to note that some of the

layers in the TCP/IP model have the same
name as layers in the OSI model.
Do not confuse the layers of the two models.
 The network access layer

 Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet

requires to actually make the physical link. All the
details in the OSI physical and data link layers.
– Electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional
specifications.
– Data rate, Distances, Physical connector.
– Frames, physical addressing.
– Synchronization, flow control, error control.
 The internet layer

 Send source packets from any network on the

internetwork and have them arrive at the
destination independent of the path and networks
they took to get there.
– Packets, Logical addressing.
– Internet Protocol (IP).
– Route , routing table, routing protocol.
 The transport layer

 The transport layer deals with the quality-of-

service issues of reliability, flow control, and error
correction.
– Segments, data stream, datagram.
– Connection oriented and connectionless.
– Transmission control protocol (TCP).
– User datagram protocol (UDP).
– End-to-end flow control.
– Error detection and recovery.
TCP/IP Reference Model (cont)

 3. Transport layer (layer 3)

– Allows end-to-end communication
– Connection establishment, error control, flow control
– Two main protocols at this level
 Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– Connection oriented
 Connection established before sending data
 Reliable

 user datagram protocol (UDP)

– Connectionless
 Sending data without establishing connection
 Fast but unreliable


 The application layer

 Handles high-level protocols, issues of

representation, encoding, and dialog control.
 The TCP/IP combines all application-related
issues into one layer, and assures this data is
properly packaged for the next layer.
– FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS ...
– Format of data, data structure, encode …
– Dialog control, session management …
TCP/IP protocol stack
TCP/IP Reference Model

Layer Protocols

Application HTTP TELNET FTP SMTP SNMP

Transport TCP UDP

Internet IP ICMP

Network Access
ETHERNET PACKET RADIO
(Host-to-network)
Protocols at the application layer
 HTTP:
– browser and web server communicatin
 FTP :
– file transfer protocol
 TELNET:
– remote login protocol
 POP3: Retrieve email
– POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has
downloaded it

 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol )

– Retrieve emails,
– retaining e-mail on the server and for organizing it in folders on the serve
Protocols at the transport layer

 Transmission control protocol (TCP),

– Connection oriented
 Connection established before sending data

 Reliable

 user datagram protocol (UDP)

– Connectionless
 Sending data without establishing connection

 Fast but unreliable

Protocol at the network layer

 IP
– Path selection ,
– routing and addressing
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )
– sends error messages relying on IP
 a requested service is not available
 a host or router could not be reached
Protocols at the link layer

 Ethernet
– Uses CSMA/CD
 Token Ring
 Data Formats
Application data message
application
layer

transport TCP TCP TCP

segment
layer header data header data header data

network IP TCP
packet
layer header header data

data link Ethernet IP TCP Ethernet

frame
layer header header header data trailer
 Comparing TCP/IP with OSI
OSI Model TCP/IP Hierarchy Protocols

7th
Application Layer

6th
Presentation Layer Application Layer

5th
Session Layer

4th
Transport Layer
Transport Layer

3rd
Network Layer
Network Layer

2nd
Link Layer
Link Layer
1st
Physical Layer

Link Layer : includes device driver and network interface card

Network Layer : handles the movement of packets, i.e. Routing
Transport Layer : provides a reliable flow of data between two hosts
Application Layer : handles the details of the particular application
Internet applications

 TCP/IP takes care of the hard problems

– Location of the destination host
– Making sure the data is received in the correct order and
error free

 Coding Internet applications

– Turns out to be straightforward.

 The key concept of Internet programming is

– The client-server model
Client-Server model
 Client and server processes operate on machines which are able to communicate through
a network:
– The Server waits for requests from client
– When a request is received
– The server lookup for the requested data
– And send a response the client

 Sockets and ports

– A socket is and end-point of a way communication link between two programs
– A port number bound to a socket specifies the protocol need the be used at the receiving end
– A port appended to an IP address is a socket
 Example of servers
– File servers
– Web servers
 Example of client applications
– Browsers
– Email clients
What is a socket?

 An interface between application and

network.
– Create a socket
 Socket(Protocolfamily, type-of-communicatio, specific- protocol);

– The application creates a socket

– The socket type dictates the style of
communication
 reliable vs. best effort
 connection-oriented vs. connectionless
 Port 0

Port 1

Ports Port 65535

r Each host has 65,536 ports

r 20,21: FTP
r 23: Telnet
r 80: HTTP
r A socket provides an interface
to send data to/from the
network through a port
 Protocols

 For a great graphic of protocol stacks in

relationship to the OSI model, visit
http://www.lex-con.com/osimodel.htm
 For more information on the OSI model,
including an animated graphic and various
protocol information, visit
http://www.certyourself.com/OSIguide.shtml
Reading

1 http://www.howtheosimodelworks.com , Charles C. Botsford, 2001.

2 https://cisconetacad.net, Cisco Academy Connection Editors, 2002.

3 http://www.hawkclan.com/zxonly/iso/slide2.html

4 http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-
center/tc/html/TC0102.html, William L. Whipple &
Sharla Riead, 1997.

5 http://www.lex-con.com/protocols/ip.htm, Lexicon Computing, Dallas TX,

2002