Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) Techniques

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 ORGANIZATION

I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

A. Six-Step VSI
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI

II. PWM Methods

A. Sine PWM

B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang)
C. Space Vector PWM

III. References

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (1)

 Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter

Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (2)

 Gating signals, switching sequence and line to negative voltages

Fig. 2 Waveforms of gating signals, switching sequence, line to negative voltages

for six-step voltage source inverter.
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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (3)

 Switching Sequence:
561 (V1)  612 (V2)  123 (V3)  234 (V4)  345 (V5)  456 (V6)  561 (V1)
where, 561 means that S5, S6 and S1 are switched on

Fig. 3 Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step voltage source inverter.

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (4)

 Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca) and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)

 Line to line voltages

 Vab = VaN - VbN

 Vbc = VbN - VcN

 Vca = VcN - VaN

 Phase voltages

 Van = 2/3VaN - 1/3VbN - 1/3VcN

 Vbn = -1/3VaN + 2/3VbN - 1/3VcN

 Vcn = -1/3VaN - 1/3VbN + 2/3VcN

Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.
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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (5)

 Amplitude of line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

 Fundamental Frequency Component (Vab)1

3 4 Vdc 6
(Vab )1 (rms)   Vdc  0.78Vdc
2  2 

 Harmonic Frequency Components (Vab)h

: amplitudes of harmonics decrease inversely proportional to their harmonic order

0.78
(Vab )h (rms)  Vdc
h

where, h  6n  1 (n  1, 2, 3,.....)

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (6)

 Characteristics of Six-step VSI

 It is called “six-step inverter” because of the presence of six “steps”

in the line to neutral (phase) voltage waveform

 Harmonics of order three and multiples of three are absent from

both the line to line and the line to neutral voltages
and consequently absent from the currents

 Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can be controlled

by only change of DC-link voltage (Vdc)

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 I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (1)

 Objective of PWM

 Control of inverter output voltage

 Reduction of harmonics

 Disadvantages of PWM
 Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency

 Reduction of available voltage

 EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (2)

 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.

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I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (3)

 Inverter output voltage

 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

 Control of inverter output voltage

 PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of vtri

 Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of vcontrol

 Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency of vcontrol

 Modulation Index (m)

vcontrol peak of (VA0 )1

m   ,
vtri Vdc / 2
where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0
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II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (1)

 Three-phase inverter

Fig. 6 Three-phase Sine PWM inverter.

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II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (2)

 Three-phase sine PWM waveforms

vtri vcontrol_A vcontrol_ vcontrol_C
B
 Frequency of vtri and vcontrol
A0
V

 Frequency of vtri = fs
B0
V

 Frequency of vcontrol = f1
C0
V

where, fs = PWM frequency

f1 = Fundamental frequency
AB
V
BC

 Inverter output voltage

V

 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

CA
V

t
 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

where, VAB = VA0 – VB0

VBC = VB0 – VC0
VCA = VC0 – VA0
Fig. 7 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.

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II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (3)

 Amplitude modulation ratio (ma)

peak amplitude of vcontrol peak value of (VA0 )1

 ma   ,
amplitude of vtri Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0

 Frequency modulation ratio (mf)

fs
mf  , where, fs  PWM frequency and f1  fundamental frequency
f1
 mf should be an odd integer
 if mf is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at output voltage
 if mf is not odd, DC component may exist and even harmonics are present at output voltage

 mf should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM inverter

 An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are suppressed

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II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (1)

 Three-phase inverter for hysteresis Current Control

Fig. 8 Three-phase inverter for hysteresis current control.

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II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (2)

 Hysteresis Current Controller

Fig. 9 Hysteresis current controller at Phase “a”.

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II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (3)

 Characteristics of hysteresis Current Control

 Advantages

 Excellent dynamic response

 Low cost and easy implementation

 Drawbacks

 Large current ripple in steady-state

 Variation of switching frequency

 No intercommunication between each hysterisis controller of three phases

and hence no strategy to generate zero-voltage vectors.
As a result, the switching frequency increases at lower modulation index and
the signal will leave the hysteresis band whenever the zero vector is turned on.

 The modulation process generates subharmonic components

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (1)

 Output voltages of three-phase inverter (1)

where, upper transistors: S1, S3, S5

lower transistors: S4, S6, S2
switching variable vector: a, b, c
Fig. 10 Three-phase power inverter.
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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (2)

 Output voltages of three-phase inverter (2)

 S1 through S6 are the six power transistors that shape the ouput voltage
 When an upper switch is turned on (i.e., a, b or c is “1”), the corresponding lower
switch is turned off (i.e., a', b' or c' is “0”)
 Eight possible combinations of on and off patterns for the three upper transistors (S1, S3, S5)

 Line to line voltage vector [Vab Vbc Vca]t

Vab  1  1 0 a 
    
 Vbc   Vdc  0 1  1 b, where switching variable vector [a b c]t
Vca   1 0 1 c 

 Line to neutral (phase) voltage vector [Van Vbn Vcn]t

Van  2  1  1 a 
  1   
V
  3 
bn  Vdc  1 2  1 b
Vcn   1  1 2 c 
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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (3)

 Output voltages of three-phase inverter (3)

 The eight inverter voltage vectors (V0 to V7)

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (4)

 Output voltages of three-phase inverter (4)

 The eight combinations, phase voltages and output line to line voltages

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (5)

 Principle of Space Vector PWM

 Treats the sinusoidal voltage as a constant amplitude vector rotating

at constant frequency

 This PWM technique approximates the reference voltage Vref by a combination

of the eight switching patterns (V0 to V7)

 CoordinateTransformation (abc reference frame to the stationary d-q frame)

: A three-phase voltage vector is transformed into a vector in the stationary d-q coordinate
frame which represents the spatial vector sum of the three-phase voltage

 The vectors (V1 to V6) divide the plane into six sectors (each sector: 60 degrees)

 Vref is generated by two adjacent non-zero vectors and two zero vectors

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (6)

 Basic switching vectors and Sectors

 6 active vectors (V1,V2, V3, V4, V5, V6)

 Axes of a hexagonal
 DC link voltage is supplied to the load
 Each sector (1 to 6): 60 degrees

 2 zero vectors (V0, V7)

 At origin
 No voltage is supplied to the load

Fig. 11 Basic switching vectors and sectors.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (7)

 Comparison of Sine PWM and Space Vector PWM (1)

Fig. 12 Locus comparison of maximum linear control voltage

in Sine PWM and SV PWM.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (8)

 Comparison of Sine PWM and Space Vector PWM (2)

 Space Vector PWM generates less harmonic distortion

in the output voltage or currents in comparison with sine PWM

 Space Vector PWM provides more efficient use of supply voltage

in comparison with sine PWM

 Sine PWM
: Locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with radius of 1/2 Vdc

 Space Vector PWM

: Locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with radius of 1/3 Vdc

 Voltage Utilization: Space Vector PWM = 2/3 times of Sine PWM

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (9)

 Realization of Space Vector PWM

 Step 1. Determine Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle ()

 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0

 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6)

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 II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (10)

 Step 1. Determine Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle ()

 Coordinate transformation
Vd  Van  Vbn  cos60  Vcn  cos60
: abc to dq 1 1
 Van  Vbn  Vcn
2 2

Vq  0  Vbn  cos30  Vcn  cos30

3 3
 Van  Vbn  Vcn
2 2

 1 1 
1    Van 
Vd  2 2 2  
    Vbn 
Vq  3  3 3 
0   Vcn 
 2 2 

V ref  Vd 2  Vq 2
Vq
α  tan 1( )  ωs t  2ππs t
Vd
(where, fs  fundamental frequency)

Fig. 13 Voltage Space Vector and its components in (d, q).

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (11)

 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0 (1)

Fig. 14 Reference vector as a combination of adjacent vectors at sector 1.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (12)

 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0 (2)

 Switching time duration at Sector 1

Tz T1 T1  T2 Tz

V
0
ref

 V1dt 
0
 V dt   V
T1
2
T1  T2
0

sin ( / 3   )
 T1  Tz  a
 Tz  V ref  (T1  V1  T2  V 2 )
sin ( / 3)

 T2  Tz  a 
sin ( ) cos (α) 2 1  2 cos (π / 3)
 sinT(z/ 3)V ref   
 1 T   V 
dc    T2   V 
dc  
 sin (α)  3  0  3 sin (π / 3) 
 V ref 
  a )
1
 T0  Tz  (T1  T2 ), (where,

where, Tz 
0 f
α
and 60 2


 s Vdc 
 3 

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (13)

 Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0 (3)

 Switching time duration at any Sector

3  Tz  V ref    n 1 
 T1   sin       
Vdc   3 3 
3  Tz  V ref  n 
  sin    
Vdc  3 
3  Tz  V ref  n n 
  sin  cos   cos  sin  
Vdc  3 3 

3  Tz  V ref   n 1 
 T2   sin      
Vdc   3 
3  Tz V ref  n 1 n 1 
   cos   sin   sin   cos 
Vdc  3 3 

 where, n  1 through 6 (that is, Sector1 to 6) 

 T0  Tz  T1  T2 ,  
 0  α  60 

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (14)

 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6) (1)

(a) Sector 1. (b) Sector 2.

Fig. 15 Space Vector PWM switching patterns at each sector.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (15)

 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6) (2)

(c) Sector 3. (d) Sector 4.

Fig. 15 Space Vector PWM switching patterns at each sector.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (16)

 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6) (3)

(e) Sector 5. (f) Sector 6.

Fig. 15 Space Vector PWM switching patterns at each sector.

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II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (17)

 Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1 to S6) (4)

Table 1. Switching Time Table at Each Sector

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III. REFERENCES

[1] N. Mohan, W. P. Robbin, and T. Undeland, Power Electronics: Converters,

Applications, and Design, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1995.

[2] B. K. Bose, Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives:Technology

and Applications. IEEE Press, 1997.

[3] H.W. van der Broeck, H.-C. Skudelny, and G.V. Stanke, “Analysis and
realization of a pulsewidth modulator based on voltage space vectors,”
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.24, pp. 142-150, 1988.

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