INTRODUCTION TO

MICROCOMPUTERS

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History

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Mechanical Age
The idea of a computing system is not new—it has been around long
before modem electrical and electronic devices were developed. The
idea of calculating with a machine dates to 500 BC when the
Babylonians, the ancestors of the present-day Iraqis, invented the
abacus, the first mechanical calculator.
The idea was not improved until 1642, when mathematician Blaise
Pascal invented a calculator that was constructed of gears and wheels.
Each gear contained 10 teeth that, when moved one complete
revolution, advanced a second gear one place. This is the same principle
that is used in the automobile’s odometer mechanism and is the basis
of all mechanical calculators. Incidentally, the PASCAL programming
language is named in honor of Blaise Pascal for his pioneering work in
mathematics and with the mechanical calculator.

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Electrical Age
The arrival of the first practical geared mechanical machines used to
automatically compute information dates to the early 1800s. This is
before humans invented the light bulb or before much was known
about electricity. In this dawn of the computer age, humans dreamed of
mechanical machines that could compute numerical facts with a
program—not merely calculating facts, as with a calculator.
The 1800s saw the advent of the electric motor (conceived by Michael
Faraday); with it came a multitude of motor-driven adding machines, all
based on the mechanical calculator developed by Blaise Pascal. These
electrically driven mechanical calculators were common pieces of office
equipment until well into the early 1970s, when the small handheld
electronic calculator, first introduced by Bomar Corporation and called
the Bomar Brain, appeared. Monroe was also a leading pioneer of
electronic calculators, but its machines were desktop, four-function
models the size of cash registers.

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IBM
In 1889, Herman Hollerith developed the punched card for storing data.
In 1896, Hollerith formed a company called the Tabulating Machine
Company, which developed a line of machines that used punched cards
for tabulation. After a number of mergers, the Tabulating Machine
Company was formed into the International Business Machines
Corporation, now referred to more commonly as IBM, Inc. The punched
cards used in early computer systems are often called Hollerith cards, in
honor of Herman Hollerith. The 12-bit code used on a punched card is
called the Hollerith code.

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 World’s first computer
COLOSSUS
oColossus was built at Bletchley Park during
WWII.
http://www.bletchleypark.org.uk/
oBletchley Park was a major code-breaking
site. Alan Turing and others worked on
cracking the German Engima machine
codes.
oColossus was built to decipher the Enigma
codes.
oBletchley Park is open today as a museum.
It includes a computer museum and a
working replica of Colossus.
Top the Colossus computer,
Bottom left Bletchley Park and
Bottom right an Enigma machine.
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9
ENIAC
The first general-purpose, programmable electronic computer system
was developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania. This first
modem computer was called the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator). The ENIAC was a huge machine, containing over 17,000
vacuum tubes and over 500 miles of wires. This massive machine
weighed over 30 tons, yet performed only about 100,000 operations per
second. The ENIAC thrust the world into the age of electronic
computers. The ENIAC was programmed by rewiring its circuits—a
process that took many workers several days to accomplish. The
workers changed the electrical connections on plug-boards that looked
like early telephone switchboards. Another problem with the ENIAC was
the life of the vacuum tube components, which required frequent
maintenance.

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Intel 4004
Breakthroughs that followed were the development of the transistor on
December 23, 1947 at Bell Labs by John Bardeen, William Shockley, and
Walter Brattain. This was followed by the 1958 invention of the
integrated circuit by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. The integrated
circuit led to the development of digital integrated circuits (RTL, or
resistor-to-transistor logic) in the 1960s and the first microprocessor at
Intel Corporation in 1971. At that time, Intel engineers Federico Faggin,
Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor developed the 4004 microprocessor (U.S.
Patent 3,821,715)—the device that started the microprocessor
revolution that continues today at an ever-accelerating pace.

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Intel
1950's: Shockley leaves Bell Labs to establish Shockley Labs in California. Some of the best young
electronic engineers and solid-state physicists come to work with him. These include Robert Noyce
and Gordon Moore.
1969: Intel was a tiny start-up company in Santa Clara, headed by Noyce and Moore.
1970: Busicom placed an order with Intel for custom calculator chips. Intel had no experience of
custom-chip design and sets outs to design a general-purpose solution.
1971: Intel have problems translating architectures into working chip designs - the project runs late.
Faggin joins Intel and solves the problems in weeks.
The result is the Intel 4000 family (later renamed MCS-4, Microcomputer System 4-bit), comprising
the 4001 (2k ROM), the 4002 (320-bit RAM), the 4003 (10-bit I/O shift-register) and the 4004, a 4-
bit CPU.
 The Busicom Calculator
The Busicom calculator used five Intel
4001’s, two 4002’s, three 4003’s and the
4004 CPU

The original engineering prototype of

the Busicom desk-top printing
calculator, the world’s first commercial
product to use a microprocessor.
http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/highlights/busicom.shtml
 Programming Advancement
The first such language, machine language, was constructed of ones and zeros using
binary codes that were stored in the computer memory system as groups of
instructions called a program. This was more efficient than rewiring a machine to
program it, but it was still extremely time-consuming to develop a program because of
the sheer number of program codes that were required. Mathematician John von
Neumann was the first modern person to develop a system that accepted instructions
and stored them in memory. Computers are often called von Neumann machines in
honor of John von Neumann.
Once computer systems such as the UNIVAC became available in the early 1950s,
assembly language was used to simplify the chore of entering binary code into a
computer as its instructions. The assembler allows the programmer to use mnemonic
codes, such as ADD for addition, in place of a binary number such as 0100 0111.
Although assembly language was an aid to programming, it wasn’t until 1957, when
Grace Hopper developed the first high-level programming language called
FLOWMATIC, that computers became easier to program.

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In the same year, IBM developed FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) for its
computer systems. The FORTRAN language allowed programmers to
develop programs that used formulas to solve mathematical problems.
Note that FORTRAN is still used by some scientists for computer
programming. Another similar language, introduced about a year after
FORTRAN, was ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language).
The first truly successful and widespread programming language for
business applications was COBOL (COmputer Business Oriented
Language). Although COBOL usage has diminished considerably in
recent years, it is still a player in some large business and government
systems. Another once-popular business language is RPG (Report
Program Generator), which allows programming by specifying the form
of the input, output, and calculations.

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The
Microprocessor
Age

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 Intel 4004
The world’s first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was a 4-bit microprocessor–
programmable controller on a chip. It addressed a mere 4096, 4-bit-wide memory
locations. (A bit is a binary digit with a value of one or zero. A 4-bit-wide memory
location is often called a nibble.) The 4004 instruction set contained only 45
instructions. It was fabricated with the then-current state-ofthe-art P-channel
MOSFET technology that only allowed it to execute instructions at the slow rate of 50
KIPs (kilo-instructions per second). This was slow when compared to the 100,000
instructions executed per second by the 30-ton ENIAC computer in 1946. The main
difference was that the 4004 weighed much less than an ounce.
Intel released the 4040, an updated version of the earlier 4004. The 4040 operated at
a higher speed, although it lacked improvements in word width and memory size.
Other companies, particularly Texas Instruments (TMS-1000), also produced 4-bit
microprocessors. The 4-bit microprocessor still survives in low-end applications such
as microwave ovens and small control systems and is still available from some
microprocessor manufacturers. Most calculators are still based on 4-bit
microprocessors that process 4-bit BCD (binary-coded decimal) codes.
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 Intel 8008
1972: Faggin begins work on an 8-bit processor, the Intel 8008. The prototype
has serious problems with electrical charge leaking out of its memory circuits.
Device physics, circuit design and layout are important new skills. The 8008
chip layout is completely redesigned and the chip is released.
The 8008 addressed an expanded memory size (16K bytes) and contained
additional instructions (a total of 48) that provided an opportunity for its
application in more advanced systems.
There is a sudden surge in microprocessor interest.
Intel's 8008 is well-received, but system designers want increased speed,
easier interfacing, and more I/O and instructions. The improved version,
produced by Faggin, is the 8080.
Faggin leaves Intel to start his own company Zilog, who later produce the Z80.

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Intel 8080 and MC6800
Intel recognized the limitations of small memory size and speed and
introduced the 8080 microprocessor in 1973—the first of the modem 8-
bit microprocessors. About six months after Intel released the 8080
microprocessor, Motorola Corporation introduced its MC6800
microprocessor. The floodgates opened and the 8080—and, to a lesser
degree, the MC6800—ushered in the age of the microprocessor. Soon,
other companies began to introduce their own versions of the 8-bit
microprocessor.
Not only could the 8080 address more memory and execute additional
instructions, but it executed them 10 times faster than the 8008. An
addition that took 20 μs (50,000 instructions per second) on an 8008-
based system required only 2.0 μs (500,000 instructions per second) on
an 8080-based system..

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8080 and 8085
Also, the 8080 was compatible with TTL (transistor-transistor logic),
whereas the 8008 was not directly compatible. This made interfacing
much easier and less expensive. The 8080 also addressed four times
more memory (64K bytes) than the 8008 (l6K bytes). These
improvements are responsible for ushering in the era of the 8080 and
the continuing saga of the microprocessor.
In 1977, Intel Corporation introduced an updated version of the 8080—
the 8085. The 8085 was to be the last 8-bit, general-purpose
microprocessor developed by Intel.
The main advantages of the 8085 were its internal clock generator,
internal system controller, and higher clock frequency. This higher level
of component integration reduced the 8085’s cost and increased its
usefulness.

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ALTAIR 8800
Incidentally, the first personal computer, the MITS Altair 8800, was
released in 1974. (Note that the number 8800 was probably chosen to
avoid copyright violations with Intel.) The BASIC language interpreter,
written for the Altair 8800 computer, was developed in 1975 by Bill
Gates and Paul Allen, the founders of Microsoft Corporation. The
assembler program for the Altair 8800 was written by Digital Research
Corporation, which once produced DR-DOS for the personal computer.

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 Modern Micoprocessor
In 1978, Intel released the 8086 microprocessor; a year or so later, it released the
8088. Both devices are 16-bit microprocessors, which executed instructions in as little
as 400 ns (2.5 MIPs, or 2.5 millions of instructions per second). This represented a
major improvement over the execution speed of the 8085. In addition, the 8086 and
8088 addressed 1M byte of memory, which was 16 times more memory than the
8085. (A 1M-byte memory contains 1024K byte-sized memory locations or 1,048,576
bytes.) This higher execution speed and larger memory size allowed the 8086 and
8088 to replace smaller minicomputers in many applications. One other feature found
in the 8086/8088 was a small 4- or 6-byte instruction cache or queue that prefetched
a few instructions before they were executed. The queue sped the operation of many
sequences of instructions and proved to be the basis for the much larger instruction
caches found in modem microprocessors.
Inaddition, the number of instructions increased from 45 on the 4004, to 246 on the
8085, to well over 20,000 variations on the 8086 and 8088 microprocessors. Note that
these microprocessors are called CISC (complex instruction set computers) because of
the number and complexity of instructions.
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 32 bit Microprocessor
Applications began to demand faster microprocessor speeds, more memory, and
wider data paths. This led to the arrival of the 80386 in 1986 by Intel Corporation.
The 80386 represented a major overhaul of the 16-bit 8086–80286 architecture.
The 80386 was Intel’s first practical 32-bit microprocessor that contained a 32-bit
data bus and a 32-bit memory address. (Note that Intel produced an earlier,
although unsuccessful, 32-bit microprocessor called the iapx-432.) Through these
32-bit buses, the 80386 addressed up to 4G bytes of memory. (1Gof memory
contains 1024M, or 1,073,741,824 locations.) A 4G-byte memory can store an
astounding 1,000,000 typewritten, double-spaced pages of ASCII text data.
The 32-bit microprocessor is needed because of the size of its data bus, which
transfers real (single-precision floating-point) numbers that require 32-bit-wide
memory. Most high-level languages, spreadsheets, and database management
systems use real numbers for data storage. Real numbers are also used in graphical
design packages that use vectors to plot images on the video screen. These include
such CAD (computer-aided drafting/design) systems as AUTOCAD, ORCAD, and so
forth.
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 Pentium
The Pentium, introduced in 1993, was similar to the 80386 and 80486
microprocessors. This microprocessor was originally labeled the P5 or 80586, but
Intel decided not to use a number because it appeared to be impossible to
copyright a number. The two introductory versions of the Pentium operated with
a clocking frequency of 60 MHz and 66 MHz, and a speed of 110 MIPs, with a
higher-frequency 100 MHz one and one-half clocked version that operated at 150
MIPs. The double-clocked Pentium, operating at 120 MHz and 133 MHz, was also
available, as were higher-speed versions. The Pentium contained an 8K-byte
instruction cache and an 8K-byte data cache, which allowed a program that
transfers a large amount of memory data to still benefit from a cache.
Probably the most ingenious feature of the Pentium is its dual integer processors.
The Pentium executes two instructions, which are not dependent on each other,
simultaneously because it contains two independent internal integer processors
called superscaler technology. This allows the Pentium to often execute two
instructions per clocking period. Another feature that enhances performance is a
jump prediction technology that speeds the execution of program loops.
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 Pentium Pro
A recent entry from Intel is the Pentium Pro processor, formerly named the
P6 microprocessor. The basic clock frequency was 150 MHz and 166 MHz in
the initial offering made available in late 1995. In addition to the internal
16K level-one (L1) cache (8K for data and 8K for instructions) the Pentium
Pro processor also contains a 256K level-two (L2) cache. One other
significant change is that the Pentium Pro processor uses three execution
engines, so it can execute up to three instructions at a time, which can
conflict and still execute in parallel. This represents a change from the
Pentium, which executes two instructions simultaneously as long as they do
not conflict. Intel launched the Pentium Pro processor for the server
market. Still another change is that the Pentium Pro can address either a
4G-byte memory system or a 64G-byte memory system. The Pentium Pro
has a 36-bit address bus if configured for a 64G memory system.

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 64 Bit Microprocessors
Recently Intel has included new modifications to the Pentium 4 and Core2 that
include a 64-bit core and multiple cores. The 64-bit modification allows the
microprocessor to address more than 4G bytes of memory through a wider 64-
bit address. Currently, 40 address pins in these newer versions allow up to 1T
(terabytes) of memory to be accessed. The 64-bit machine also allows 64-bit
integer arithmetic, but this is much less important than the ability to address
more memory.
The biggest advancement in the technology is not the 64-bit operation, but the
inclusion of multiple cores. Each core executes a separate task in a program,
which increases the speed of execution if a program is written to take advantage
of the multiple cores. Programs that do this are called multithreaded
applications. Currently, Intel manufactures dual and quad core versions, but in
the future the number of cores will likely increase to eight or even sixteen. The
problem faced by Intel is that the clock speed cannot be increased to a much
higher rate, so multiple cores are the current solution to providing faster
microprocessors.
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Generations of
microprocessor

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 1st Generation
Intel processor generations is simply have the enhanced feature set and
speed than the previous generations. Let’s discuss each generation
separately.
1st Generation Intel Processors – Nehalem
Nehalem was the Intel processor micro-architecture which was successor
to the initial Core architecture which had certain limitations like inability
to increase clock speed, inefficient pipeline etc.
Nehalem used 45 nanometer process as opposed to the 65nm or 90nm
used by previous architectures. Nehalem reintroduced hyper-threading
technology which was left out mainly in the initial Core i3 processor
models.
The Nehalem processor has a 64 KB L1 cache, 256 KB per core L2 cache
and 4 MB to 12 MB L3 cache which is shared with all the processor cores.

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2nd Generation
2nd Generation Intel Processors – Sandy Bridge
Sandy Bridge micro-architecture was introduced in 2011 to replace
Nehalem architecture. Sandy Bridge uses 32 nanometer process as
opposed to 45 nm used in Nehalem. Sandy Bridge processor average
performance enhancement as compared to Nehalem was about 11.3%.
Sandy Bridge uses the same 64 KB L1 cache and 256 KB per core for L2
cache but the difference is in the L3 cache. Normally the Sandy Bridge
processor L3 cache was from 1MB to 8 MB. For extreme processors, it
was from 10 MB to 15 MB

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 3rd and 4th Generation
3rd Generation Intel Processors – Ivy Bridge
Ivy Bridge processors are faster than Sandy Bridge processors and use 22 nanometer
process as opposed to 32 nm used in Sandy Bridge. This processor model consumes
up to 50% less energy and will give 25% to 68% increase in performance as
compared to Sandy Bridge processors.
The only problem with Ivy Bridge processors is that they may emit more heat as
compared to Sandy Bridge processors.
4th Generation Intel Processors – Haswell
Haswell is the latest generation processor which is released by Intel. It uses the same
22 nm process like Ivy Bridge. The performance improvement of Haswell as
compared to Ivy bridge is from 3% to 8%. Haswell carries a lot of features from Ivy
Bridge with some very exciting new features like support for new sockets (LGA 1150,
BGA 1364, LGA 2011-3), DDR4 technology, a completely new cache design etc. The
main benefit of Haswell is that it can be used in ultra portable devices due to its low
power consumption.
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Next Generation
The next generations
After Haswell, Intel is working on 14 nm and 10 nm architectures which
is to be named as Skylate. Skylate will has support for PCIe 4.0, DDR4 SD
RAM, SATA express and advanced vector extensions 2.2. There is no
official word on when Skylate will be released but it is expected to land
somewhere in 2015.

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Generations of
Computer

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Microcomputer

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Microcomputers
Microcomputers plays an important roll in a modern house hold
Micro computing unit (microprocessor/microcontroller) is an important
part of a microcomputers
Various Microprocessor (an important block of a microcomputer) are
developed by different Manufacturers
◦ Intel 8080
◦ Motorola 6800
◦ RCA 1801
◦ MOS Technology 6502
◦ Zilog Z80

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Microcomputers
Definition:
It is a unit that includes a
microprocessor, memory
chips, inputs & outputs
circuitry/devices

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Architecture
Microcomputer architecture means a description of its hardware parts,
how they are connected and communicate with each other

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Terminology
Computer
◦ A device that process data
Peripheral device
◦ A device that is a bridge between human and the
machine software
Program
◦ It is a software that administer data processing
Hardware
◦ The Equipment that process the data

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 CPU
Microprocessors are most commonly used part in a Microcomputer system
CPU Interval- timer Ext. Inter Serial devices Parallel Dev

Int Cont Serial Parallel

CLK MPU Timer
Interface Interface

RAM ROM

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CPU
Central Processing unit
MPU/MC as a brain of the computer system administer all activity in the
system and perform all operations on the data available

MPU/MC

IR PC

Instruction
Registers
Decoder

ALU
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Microcomputer busses
Microcomputer have various
internal busses

Unidirectional Address Bus

Bidirectional data Bus

Unidirectional control bus

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On board Hardware Storage Devices
MEMORY CHIPS
◦ RAM
◦ DRAM
◦ SRAM
◦ Z-RAM
◦ ROM
◦ EPROM
◦ EEPROM

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 Primary memory
Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.
RAM
RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current
use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It
is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is
on. The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.
ROM
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and
contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically
contains manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial
program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of
computer system once the power is turned on.

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 Secondary Memory
CD ROM
Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices
include hard disks and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.
HARD DISK
Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in
a box. The hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent
part of the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage
capacities ranging from 1GB to 80 GB and more. Hard disks are rewritable.
Compact Disk
Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB.
It can hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc.
CDs can be either read only or read write type.

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Hardware (I/O Devices)
These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a
computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to
a user. Input/output devices are required for users to communicate with
the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the
computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer
system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since
they surround the CPU and memory of a computer system.
INPUTS
◦ Keyboard
◦ Mouse
◦ Light pen
◦ Scanners
◦ Joy Stick

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Hardware (I/O Devices)
OUTPUTS
printer
Monitor
Audio
USB (input/output or some thing else?)

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Functions
Function of a CPU
◦ Fetch the instruction
◦ Decode the instruction
◦ Execute the instruction
◦ Increment the counter
Memory chips
◦ ROM store permanent data
◦ RAM store erasable data
I/O Devices
◦ Read the data and present it to be read by the CPU
◦ Act upon the data received by the CPU
Buses
◦ Unidirectional Address Bus carry address
◦ Bi directional Data Bus carry data
◦ Unidirectional Control bus control devices attached to CPU

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Microcontroller
MCS-51 is developed by Intel Corporation-USA in 70’s
◦ In 1976 Intel introduce MCS-48 (8748) on a single chip
◦ It had over 1700 Transistor
◦ In 1980 Intel introduce MCS-51
◦ 8051 single chip had over 60, 000 Transistors
◦ It is most popular micro controller for decades
◦ Well documented
◦ License to built was granted by Intel to different
Manufacturers

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 Instruction Fetching
Fetching an instruction from the system RAM or
ROM is one of the most fundamental operation
that is performed by the CPU

It involves the following steps

◦ Contents of the program counter are placed on

the address bus

◦ Control signal (read) is activated

◦ Data (instruction opcode) is read from

RAM/ROM and placed on the data bus

◦ The opcode latched into CPU internal

instruction register

◦ Program counter is incremented

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Programs
Different level of software
Application Software (Word,
music, games)
Operating System (Unix,
Windows, DOS)
Low level subroutines and
BIOS
Hardware that perform the
task

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Some differences between microprocessors
and microcontrollers
MC: suited to control of I/O devices requiring a minimum component
count
MP: suited to processing information in computer systems

MC: Slow speed processing

MP: High speed processing

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Microprocessors VS Microcontrollers

MP:
◦ processing intensive
◦ powerful addressing modes
◦ instructions to perform complex operations & manipulate large volumes of data
◦ processing capability of MCs never approaches those of MPs
◦ large instructions -- e.g., 80X86 up to7-byte long instructions
MC:
◦ is developed to control of inputs and outputs
◦ instructions to bit wise operations
◦ Boolean operations included (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
◦ Extremely compact instructions, many of them can be implemented in one byte
◦ Complete program usually fit in the small, on-chip built in memory

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Microprocessors VS Microcontrollers
Hardware & Instruction set support:

MC: built-in I/O operations, event timing,

enabling & setting up priority levels for
interrupts caused by external stimuli

MP: usually require external circuitry to do

similar things (e.g. 8255 PPI, 8254 PIT,
8259 PIC

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Microprocessors VS Microcontrollers
Bus widths:

MP: Very wide

large memory address spaces (>4 G bytes)
lots of data (Data bus: 32, 64, 128 bits wide)

MC: Narrow
Relatively small memory address spaces
(typically Kbytes)
less data (Data bus typically 4, 8, 16 bits wide)

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Microprocessors VS Microcontrollers
Clock Rates:
MP very fast (> 2 GHz)

MC: Relatively slow (typically 10-40 MHz)

since most I/O devices being controlled are relatively slow

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Microprocessors VS Microcontrollers
Cost:

MP's expensive (often > $100)

MCs cheap (often $1 - $10)

4-bit: < $1.00
8-bit: $1.00 - $8.00
16-32-bit: $6.00 - $20.00

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Propagation Delay

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Thank you

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