Computer Communication

Network

VIII Sem ETRX-B

G. H. Raisoni College Of Engg.

By : BHARATI B. SAYANKAR
 A Communications Model
Source
generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter
Converts data into transmittable signals
Transmission System
Carries data
Receiver
Converts received signal into data
Destination
Takes incoming data

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 Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram

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 Key Communications Tasks
 Transmission System Utilization
 Interfacing
 Signal Generation
 Synchronization
 Exchange Management
 Error detection and correction
 Addressing and routing
 Recovery
 Message formatting
 Security
 Network Management

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Simplified Data Communications
Model

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 Networking
Point to point communication not usually
practical
Devices are too far apart
Large set of devices would need impractical number
of connections
Solution is a communications network

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 Simplified Network Model

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 Network Hardware
Local Area Networks
Metropolitan Area Networks
Wide Area Networks
Wireless Networks
Home Networks
Internetworks

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 Wide Area Networks
Large geographical area
Crossing public rights of way
Rely in part on common carrier circuits
Alternative technologies
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Frame relay
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

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 Circuit Switching
Dedicated communications path established for
the duration of the conversation
e.g. telephone network

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 Packet Switching
Data sent out of sequence
Small chunks (packets) of data at a time
Packets passed from node to node between
source and destination
Used for terminal to computer and computer to
computer communications

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 Frame Relay
Packet switching systems have large overheads
to compensate for errors
Modern systems are more reliable
Errors can be caught in end system
Most overhead for error control is stripped out

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 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATM
Evolution of frame relay
Little overhead for error control
Fixed packet (called cell) length
Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps
Constant data rate using packet switching
technique

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 Integrated Services Digital
Network
ISDN
Designed to replace public telecom system
Wide variety of services
Entirely digital domain

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 Local Area Networks
Smaller scope
Building or small campus
Usually owned by same organization as
attached devices
Data rates much higher
Usually broadcast systems
Now some switched systems and ATM are being
introduced

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 Protocols
Used for communications between entities in a
system
Must speak the same language
Entities
User applications
e-mail facilities
terminals
Systems
Computer
Terminal
Remote sensor
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 Key Elements of a Protocol
Syntax
Data formats
Signal levels
Semantics
Control information
Error handling
Timing
Speed matching
Sequencing

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 Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up into modules
For example file transfer could use three
modules
File transfer application
Communication service module
Network access module

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 Simplified File Transfer
Architecture

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 A Three Layer Model
Network Access Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer

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 Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between the computer and
the network
Sending computer provides address of
destination
May invoke levels of service
Dependent on type of network used (LAN,
packet switched etc.)

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 Transport Layer
Reliable data exchange
Independent of network being used
Independent of application

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 Application Layer
Support for different user applications
e.g. e-mail, file transfer

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 Addressing Requirements
Two levels of addressing required
Each computer needs unique network address
Each application on a (multi-tasking) computer
needs a unique address within the computer
The service access point or SAP

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 Protocol Architectures and
Networks

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 Protocols in Simplified
Architecture

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 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate
Control information is added to user data at
each layer
Transport layer may fragment user data
Each fragment has a transport header added
Destination SAP
Sequence number
Error detection code
This gives a transport protocol data unit

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 Network PDU
Adds network header
network address for destination computer
Facilities requests

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 Operation of a Protocol
Architecture

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 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
Used by the global Internet
No official model but a working one.
Application layer
Host to host or transport layer
Internet layer
Network access layer
Physical layer

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 Physical Layer
Physical interface between data transmission
device (e.g. computer) and transmission
medium or network
Characteristics of transmission medium
Signal levels
Data rates
etc.

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 Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between end system and
network
Destination address provision
Invoking services like priority

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 Internet Layer (IP)
Systems may be attached to different networks
Routing functions across multiple networks
Implemented in end systems and routers

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 Transport Layer (TCP)
Reliable delivery of data
Ordering of delivery

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 Application Layer
Support for user applications
e.g. http, SMPT

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 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Model

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 OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection
Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Seven layers
A theoretical system delivered too late!
TCP/IP is the de facto standard

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 OSI Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical

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 OSI v TCP/IP

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 Standards
Required to allow for interoperability between
equipment
Advantages
Ensures a large market for equipment and software
Allows products from different vendors to
communicate
Disadvantages
Freeze technology
May be multiple standards for the same thing

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 Standards Organizations
Internet Society
ISO
ITU-T (formally CCITT)
ATM forum

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Computer communication
Network
VIII Sem ETRX
G H Raisoni College Of Engg.
Hngana Nagpur

By : Miss Pranalee P Thorat

 Unit 3

The Data Link Layer

 Data Link Layer Design Issues
• Services Provided to the Network
Layer
• Framing
• Error Control
• Flow Control

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 Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Provide service interface to the
network layer
• Dealing with transmission errors
• Regulating data flow
• Slow receivers not swamped by fast
senders

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 Functions of the Data Link Layer
(2)
Relationship between packets and frames.

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 Services Provided to Network
Layer
(a) Virtual communication.
(b) Actual communication.

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 Services Provided to Network
Layer (2)
Placement of the data link protocol.

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 Framing
A character stream. (a) Without errors. (b)
With one error.

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 Framing (2)
(a) A frame delimited by flag bytes.
(b) Four examples of byte sequences before
and after stuffing.

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 Framing (3)

Bit stuffing
(a) The original data.
(b) The data as they appear on the line.
(c) The data as they are stored in receiver’s memory after
destuffing.

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 Error Detection and Correction

• Error-Correcting Codes
• Error-Detecting Codes

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 Error-Correcting Codes
Use of a Hamming code to correct burst errors.

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 Error-Detecting Codes

Calculation of the polynomial code checksum.

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 Elementary Data Link Protocols
• An Unrestricted Simplex Protocol
• A Simplex Stop-and-Wait Protocol
• A Simplex Protocol for a Noisy
Channel

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 Sliding Window Protocols

• A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol

• A Protocol Using Go Back N
• A Protocol Using Selective Repeat

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 Sliding Window Protocols (2)

A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number.

(a) Initially.
(b) After the first frame has been sent.
(c) After the first frame has been received.
(d) After the first acknowledgement has been received.
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 A One-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
(2)

Two scenarios for protocol 4. (a) Normal case. (b) Abnormal case.
The notation is (seq, ack, packet number). An asterisk indicates
where a network layer accepts a packet.

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 A Protocol Using Go Back N

Pipelining and error recovery. Effect on an error when

(a) Receiver’s window size is 1.
(b) Receiver’s window size is large.

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 Sliding Window Protocol Using
Go Back N (2)
Simulation of multiple timers in software.

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 A Sliding Window Protocol Using
Selective Repeat (5)

(a) Initial situation with a window size seven.

(b) After seven frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.
(c) Initial situation with a window size of four.
(d) After four frames sent and received, but not acknowledged.

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 Example Data Link Protocols

• HDLC – High-Level Data Link

Control
• The Data Link Layer in the Internet

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 High-Level Data Link Control
Frame format for bit-oriented protocols.

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 High-Level Data Link
Control (2)

Control field of
(a) An information frame.
(b) A supervisory frame.
(c) An unnumbered frame.

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 The Data Link Layer in the
Internet
A home personal computer acting as an internet
host.

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 PPP – Point to Point Protocol
The PPP full frame format for unnumbered mode
operation.

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 PPP – Point to Point Protocol (2)

A simplified phase diagram for bring a line up and down.

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 PPP – Point to Point
Protocol (3)
The LCP frame types.

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Computer Communication
Network
VIII Sem ETRX / ETC
G H Raisoni College Of Engg.
Hingna Nagpur

By : Miss Pranalee P Thorat

 Unit 2
The Medium Access Control
Sublayer
 The Channel Allocation Problem

• Static Channel Allocation in LANs and

MANs
• Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and
MANs

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 Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and
MANs
 Station Model.

 Single Channel Assumption.

 Collision Assumption.

 (a) Continuous Time.

(b) Slotted Time.

 (a) Carrier Sense.

(b) No Carrier Sense.

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 Multiple Access Protocols
• ALOHA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols
• Collision-Free Protocols
• Limited-Contention Protocols
• Wavelength Division Multiple Access
Protocols
• Wireless LAN Protocols

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 Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at
completely arbitrary times.

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 Pure ALOHA (2)
Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

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 Pure ALOHA (3)
Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA
systems.

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 Persistent and Nonpersistent
CSMA
Comparison of the channel utilization
versus load for various random access
protocols.

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 CSMA with Collision Detection

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention,

transmission, or idle.
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 Collision-Free Protocols
The basic bit-map protocol.

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 Collision-Free Protocols (2)
The binary countdown protocol. A dash indicates
silence.

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 Limited-Contention Protocols
Acquisition probability for a symmetric contention
channel.

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 Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
The tree for eight stations.

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 Wavelength Division Multiple Access
Protocols
Wavelength division multiple access.

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 Wireless LAN Protocols

A wireless LAN. (a) A transmitting. (b) B transmitting.

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 Wireless LAN Protocols (2)

The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to

B.
(b) B responding with a CTS to A.
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 Ethernet
• Ethernet Cabling
• Manchester Encoding
• The Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
• The Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm
• Ethernet Performance
• Switched Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet
• IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control
• Retrospective on Ethernet

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 Ethernet Cabling
The most common kinds of Ethernet cabling.

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 Ethernet Cabling (2)
Three kinds of Ethernet cabling.
(a) 10Base5, (b) 10Base2, (c) 10Base-T.

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 Ethernet Cabling (3)
Cable topologies. (a) Linear, (b) Spine, (c) Tree,
(d) Segmented.

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 Ethernet Cabling (4)
(a) Binary encoding, (b) Manchester encoding,
(c) Differential Manchester encoding.

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 Ethernet MAC Sub layer Protocol
Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet, (b) IEEE 802.3.

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Ethernet MAC Sub layer Protocol(2)

Collision detection can take as long as 2 .

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 Ethernet Performance
Efficiency of Ethernet at 10 Mbps with 512-bit slot
times.

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 Switched Ethernet
A simple example of switched Ethernet.

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 Fast Ethernet
The original fast Ethernet cabling.

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 Gigabit Ethernet

(a) A two-station Ethernet. (b) A multistation Ethernet.

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 Gigabit Ethernet (2)
Gigabit Ethernet cabling.

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IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control

(a) Position of LLC. (b) Protocol formats.

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 Wireless LANs
• The 802.11 Protocol Stack
• The 802.11 Physical Layer
• The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
• The 802.11 Frame Structure
• Services

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 The 802.11 Protocol Stack
Part of the 802.11 protocol stack.

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 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer
Protocol
(a) The hidden station problem.
(b) The exposed station problem.

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 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer
Protocol (2)
The use of virtual channel sensing using CSMA/CA.

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 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer
Protocol (3)
A fragment burst.

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 The 802.11 MAC Sublayer
Protocol (4)
Interframe spacing in 802.11.

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 The 802.11 Frame Structure
The 802.11 data frame.

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 802.11 Services

Distribution Services
• Association
• Disassociation
• Reassociation
• Distribution
• Integration
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 802.11 Services

Intracell Services

• Authentication
• Deauthentication
• Privacy
• Data Delivery

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 Broadband Wireless
• Comparison of 802.11 and 802.16
• The 802.16 Protocol Stack
• The 802.16 Physical Layer
• The 802.16 MAC Sublayer Protocol
• The 802.16 Frame Structure

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 The 802.16 Protocol Stack
The 802.16 Protocol Stack.

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 The 802.16 Physical Layer
The 802.16 transmission environment.

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 The 802.16 Physical Layer (2)
Frames and time slots for time division duplexing.

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 The 802.16 MAC Sublayer
Protocol
Service Classes
• Constant bit rate service
• Real-time variable bit rate service
• Non-real-time variable bit rate
service
• Best efforts service

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 The 802.16 Frame Structure
(a) A generic frame. (b) A bandwidth request
frame.

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 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth Architecture
• Bluetooth Applications
• The Bluetooth Protocol Stack
• The Bluetooth Radio Layer
• The Bluetooth Baseband Layer
• The Bluetooth L2CAP Layer
• The Bluetooth Frame Structure
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 Bluetooth Architecture
Two piconets can be connected to form a
scatternet.

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 Bluetooth Applications
The Bluetooth profiles.

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 The Bluetooth Protocol Stack
The 802.15 version of the Bluetooth protocol
architecture.

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 The Bluetooth Frame Structure
A typical Bluetooth data frame.

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 Data Link Layer Switching
• Bridges from 802.x to 802.y
• Local Internetworking
• Spanning Tree Bridges
• Remote Bridges
• Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers,
Gateways
• Virtual LANs

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 Data Link Layer Switching
Multiple LANs connected by a backbone to handle
a total load higher than the capacity of a single
LAN.

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 Bridges from 802.x to 802.y
Operation of a LAN bridge from 802.11 to 802.3.

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 Bridges from 802.x to 802.y (2)
The IEEE 802 frame formats. The drawing is not
to scale.

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 Local Internetworking
A configuration with four LANs and two bridges.

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 Spanning Tree Bridges
Two parallel transparent bridges.

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 Spanning Tree Bridges (2)

(a) Interconnected LANs. (b) A spanning tree covering the

LANs. The dotted lines are not part of the spanning tree.
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 Remote Bridges
Remote bridges can be used to interconnect
distant LANs.

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 Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches,
Routers and Gateways

(a) Which device is in which layer.

(b) Frames, packets, and headers.
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 Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches,
Routers and Gateways (2)

(a) A hub. (b) A bridge. (c) a switch.

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 Virtual LANs
A building with centralized wiring using hubs and a
switch.

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 Virtual LANs (2)

(a) Four physical LANs organized into two VLANs,

gray and white, by two bridges. (b) The same 15
machines
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 The IEEE 802.1Q Standard
Transition from legacy Ethernet to VLAN-aware
Ethernet. The shaded symbols are VLAN aware.
The empty ones are not.

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 The IEEE 802.1Q Standard (2)
The 802.3 (legacy) and 802.1Q Ethernet frame
formats.

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 Summary

Channel allocation methods and systems for a common channel.

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Computer Communication
Network
VIII Sem ETRX
G H Raisoni College Of Engg.
Hingana Nagpur

By : Miss Pranalee P Thorat

 Unit 4
The Physical Layer
 The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

• Fourier Analysis
• Bandwidth-Limited Signals
• Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals
A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier
amplitudes.
(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the
original signal.

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)
(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the
original signal.

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 Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)
Relation between data rate and harmonics.

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 Guided Transmission Data

• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics

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 Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.

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 Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable.

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 Fiber Optics

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber

impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
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 Transmission of Light through
Fiber
Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared
region.

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 Fiber Cables
(a) Side view of a single fiber.
(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.

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 Fiber Cables (2)
A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs
as light sources.

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 Fiber Optic Networks
A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

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 Fiber Optic Networks (2)
A passive star connection in a fiber optics
network.

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 Wireless Transmission
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission

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 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for
communication.

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 Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
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 Politics of the Electromagnetic
Spectrum
The ISM bands in the United States.

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 Lightwave Transmission
Convection currents can interfere with laser communication
systems.
A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.

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 Communication Satellites
• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Satellites versus Fiber

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 Communication Satellites

Communication satellites and some of their properties,

including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time
and number of satellites needed for global coverage.
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 Communication Satellites (2)
The principal satellite bands.

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 Communication Satellites (3)
VSATs using a hub.

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 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
Iridium

(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the

earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
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 Globalstar
(a) Relaying in space.
(b) Relaying on the ground.

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 Public Switched Telephone
System
• Structure of the Telephone System
• The Politics of Telephones
• The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and
Wireless
• Trunks and Multiplexing
• Switching

16
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
Structure of the Telephone System

(a) Fully-interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
16
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
Structure of the Telephone System
(2)
A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

16
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Major Components of the
Telephone System
• Local loops
 Analog twisted pairs going to houses and
businesses
• Trunks
 Digital fiber optics connecting the
switching offices
• Switching offices
 Where calls are moved from one trunk to
another
16
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 The Politics of Telephones

The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the

circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon
belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
16
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 The Local Loop: Modems,
ADSL, and Wireless
The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a
computer to computer call. Conversion is done by the
modems and codecs.

16
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Modems

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(b) Amplitude modulation (d) Phase modulation
16
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Modems (2)

(a) QPSK.
(b) QAM-16.
(c) QAM-64.
16
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Modems (3)

(a) (b)
(a) V.32 for 9600 bps.
(b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
16
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Digital Subscriber Lines
Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3 UTP
for DSL.

16
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Digital Subscriber Lines (2)
Operation of ADSL using discrete multitone
modulation.

17
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Digital Subscriber Lines (3)
A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

17
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Wireless Local Loops

Architecture of an LMDS system.

17
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Frequency Division Multiplexing

(a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
17
(b) The multiplexed channel.
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength division multiplexing.

17
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Time Division Multiplexing

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

17
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Time Division Multiplexing (2)
Delta modulation.

17
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Time Division Multiplexing (3)
Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

17
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Time Division Multiplexing (4)
Two back-to-back SONET frames.

17
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Time Division Multiplexing (5)
SONET and SDH multiplex rates.

17
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching.

18
(b) Packet switching.
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet

switching
18
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Packet Switching

A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

18
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 The Mobile Telephone System
• First-Generation Mobile Phones:
Analog Voice

• Second-Generation Mobile Phones:

Digital Voice

• Third-Generation Mobile Phones:

Digital Voice and Data
18
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.

18
(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Channel Categories
The 832 channels are divided into four
categories:

• Control (base to mobile) to manage the

system

• Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to

calls for them

• Access (bidirectional) for call setup and

channel assignment
18
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 D-AMPS
Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users.

18
6 (b) A D-AMPS
CCN/VIIIchannel
SEM ETRX/PTwith six users.
 GSM
Global System for Mobile Communication
GSM uses 124 frequency channels,
each of which uses an eight-slot
TDM system

18
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 GSM (2)
A portion of the GSM framing structure.

18
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 CDMA – Code Division Multiple
Access

(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations (b) Bipolar chip sequenc
(c) Six examples of transmissions (d) Recovery of station C’s signal

18
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data
Basic services an IMT-2000 network should
provide

• High-quality voice transmission

• Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat,
etc.)
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
• Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)
19
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Cable Television

• Community Antenna Television

• Internet over Cable
• Spectrum Allocation
• Cable Modems
• ADSL versus Cable

19
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Community Antenna Television
An early cable television system.

19
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Internet over Cable
Cable television

19
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Internet over Cable (2)
The fixed telephone system.

19
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Spectrum Allocation
Frequency allocation in a typical
cable TV system used for Internet
access

19
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Cable Modems
Typical details of the upstream and
downstream channels in North
America.

19
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
Computer Communication
Network
VIII Sem ETRX
G H Raisoni College Of Engg.
Hingana Nagpur

By : Miss Pranalee P Thorat

 Unit 6

Network Security
 Cryptography
Introduction to Cryptography
Substitution Ciphers
Transposition Ciphers
One-Time Pads
Two Fundamental Cryptographic
Principles

19
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Need for Security
Some people who cause security problems and
why.

20
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 An Introduction to Cryptography
The encryption model (for a symmetric-key
cipher).

20
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Transposition Ciphers
A transposition cipher.

20
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 One-Time Pads

The use of a one-time pad for encryption and the

possibility of getting any possible plaintext from
the ciphertext by the use of some other pad.
20
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Quantum Cryptography

An
20
example of quantum cryptography.
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Symmetric-Key Algorithms

DES – The Data Encryption Standard

AES – The Advanced Encryption
Standard
Cipher Modes
Other Ciphers
Cryptanalysis

20
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Product Ciphers
Basic elements of product ciphers. (a) P-box.
(b) S-box. (c) Product.

20
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Data Encryption Standard
 The data encryption standard. (a) General outline.
(b) Detail of one iteration. The circled + means
exclusive OR.

20
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Triple DES
(a) Triple encryption using DES. (b) Decryption.

20
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 AES – The Advanced Encryption
Standard
 Rules for AES proposals
1. The algorithm must be a symmetric block
cipher.
2. The full design must be public.
3. Key lengths of 128, 192, and 256 bits
supported.
4. Both software and hardware
implementations required
5. The algorithm must be public or licensed on
nondiscriminatory terms.
20
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 AES (3)
Creating of the state and rk arrays.

21
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Electronic Code Book Mode
The plaintext of a file encrypted as 16 DES
blocks.

21
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Cipher Block Chaining Mode
Cipher block chaining. (a) Encryption. (b)
Decryption.

21
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Cipher Feedback Mode
(a) Encryption. (c) Decryption.

21
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Stream Cipher Mode
A stream cipher. (a) Encryption. (b)
Decryption.

21
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Counter Mode
Encryption using counter mode.

21
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Cryptanalysis
Some common symmetric-key cryptographic
algorithms.

21
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Public-Key Algorithms

RSA
Other Public-Key Algorithms

21
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 RSA
An example of the RSA algorithm.

21
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Digital Signatures

Symmetric-Key Signatures
Public-Key Signatures
Message Digests
The Birthday Attack

21
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Symmetric-Key Signatures
Digital signatures with Big Brother.

22
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Public-Key Signatures
Digital signatures using public-key cryptography.

22
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Message Digests
Digital signatures using message digests.

22
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 SHA-1
Use of SHA-1 and RSA for signing nonsecret
messages.

22
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 SHA-1 (2)
(a) A message padded out to a multiple of 512
bits.
 (b) The output variables. (c) The word array.

22
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Management of Public Keys

Certificates
X.509
Public Key Infrastructures

22
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Problems with Public-Key
Encryption
A way for Trudy to subvert public-key
encryption.

22
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Certificates
A possible certificate and its signed hash.

22
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 X.509
The basic fields of an X.509 certificate.

22
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Public-Key Infrastructures
(a) A hierarchical PKI. (b) A chain of
certificates.

22
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Communication Security

IPsec
Firewalls
Virtual Private Networks
Wireless Security

23
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 IPsec
The IPsec authentication header in transport
mode for IPv4.

23
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 IPsec (2)
(a) ESP in transport mode. (b) ESP in tunnel
mode.

23
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Firewalls
A firewall consisting of two packet filters and an
application gateway.

23
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Virtual Private Networks
(a) A leased-line private network. (b) A virtual
private network.

23
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 802.11 Security
Packet encryption using WEP.

23
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Protocols
Authentication Based on a Shared
Secret Key
Establishing a Shared Key: Diffie-
Hellman
Authentication Using a Key Distribution
Center
Authentication Using Kerberos
Authentication Using Public-Key
Cryptography
23
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret
Key

 Two-way authentication using a challenge-response protocol.

23
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret Key
(2)
A shortened two-way authentication protocol.

23
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret Key
(3)
The reflection attack.

23
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret Key
(4)

A reflection attack on the protocol of Fig. 8-

32.

24
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Based on a Shared Secret Key
(5)
Authentication using HMACs.

24
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Establishing a Shared Key:
The Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
The Diffie-Hellman key exchange.

24
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Establishing a Shared Key:
The Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
The bucket brigade or man-in-the-middle attack.

24
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Using a Key Distribution
Center
A first attempt at an authentication protocol
using a KDC.

24
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
Authentication Using a Key Distribution Center
(2)
The Needham-Schroeder authentication
protocol.

24
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
Authentication Using a Key Distribution Center
(3)
The Otway-Rees authentication protocol (slightly
simplified).

24
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Using Kerberos
The operation of Kerberos V4.

24
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Authentication Using Public-Key
Cryptography
Mutual authentication using public-key
cryptography.

24
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 E-Mail Security
PGP – Pretty Good Privacy
PEM – Privacy Enhanced
Mail
S/MIME

24
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 PGP – Pretty Good Privacy
PGP in operation for sending a message.

25
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 PGP – Pretty Good Privacy (2)
A PGP message.

25
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Web Security

Threats
Secure Naming
SSL – The Secure Sockets
Layer
Mobile Code Security

25
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Secure Naming
(a) Normal situation. (b) An attack
based on breaking into DNS and
modifying Bob's record.

25
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Secure Naming (2)
How Trudy spoofs Alice's ISP.

25
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Secure DNS

An example RRSet for bob.com. The KEY record is Bob's

public key. The SIG record is the top-level com server's signed
has of the A and KEY records to verify their authenticity.
25
5 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Self-Certifying Names

 A self-certifying URL containing a hash of

server's name and public key.

25
6 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 SSL—The Secure Sockets Layer
Layers (and protocols) for a home user
browsing with SSL.

25
7 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 SSL (2)
A simplified version of the SSL connection
establishment subprotocol.

25
8 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 SSL (3)

Data
25
transmission using SSL.
9 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Java Applet Security
Applets inserted into a Java Virtual
Machine interpreter inside the
browser.

26
0 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Social Issues
Privacy
Freedom of Speech
Copyright

26
1 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Anonymous Remailers
Users who wish anonymity chain
requests through multiple
anonymous remailers.

26
2 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Freedom of Speech
 Possibly banned material:
1. Material inappropriate for children or teenagers.
2. Hate aimed at various ethnic, religious, sexual, or
other groups.
3. Information about democracy and democratic
values.
4. Accounts of historical events contradicting the
government's version.
5. Manuals for picking locks, building weapons,
encrypting messages, etc.
26
3 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT
 Steganography
(a) Three zebras and a tree. (b) Three
zebras, a tree, and the complete text of
five plays by William Shakespeare.

26
4 CCN/VIII SEM ETRX/PT