Perancangan Produk

13
Modul ke:

Materials & Manufacturing Process

Inter-relationship between Materials-Process
(Manufacturing)-Design

Fakultas
Haris Wahyudi, ST. M.Sc
Teknik

Program Studi
Teknik Mesin
Overview of Manufacturing
1. What is Manufacturing?
2. Materials in Manufacturing
3. Manufacturing Processes
4. Materials Selection Process

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1. What is manufacturing?
• Technologically:
– Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical
processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or
products.

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What is manufacturing?
• Economically:
– Transformation of materials into components that have
greater value by one or more processing and/or assembly
operations.

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Materials and Manufacturing
• Manufacturing process convert the material into
a useful part (product)

Raw Value added

Products
materials process

• A manufacturing processes aim to transform a

certain limited range of materials into products
of increased value

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Manufacturing Capability
• Certain manufacturing processes are appropriate to certain
materials, so by specializing in certain processes usually the
plant is also specializing in certain materials
• The differences of Materials (metals, ceramics & polymers)
affect the manufacturing processes that can be used to
produce products from them
• There is usually more than one methods of manufacturing
part from a given material

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Manufacturing Process Selection criteria
• Some of the factors that influence the selection
of particular manufacturing process are:
1. Meet the functional requirements
2. Shape of product & Material properties
3. Lowest overall cost:
• Operational and manufacturing cost
• Material cost
• Equipment cost
• Operation cost such as facility and energy cost
4. Quality: Dimensional accuracy and surface finishing
5. Speed to market

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Factors to be considered
• Material selection
– Types of Materials
– Properties
– Cost
– Process requirements
• Process selection
– Tolerance requirement
– Equipment / Facility requirement
– Speed of production
– Labor & operating cost
• Alternative structural design

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Selection Criteria From Material Points Of View

• Please name the four major types of engineering

material commonly used for manufacturing?
• What are there major characteristics, or advantages
and disadvantages?
• What are the main physical parameters which one
should consider in selection of the material?
– Electrical – conductivity
– Magnetic – for motor etc.
– Optical properties
– Chemical – corrosion resistance
– Thermal – conductivity, melting point etc
– Mechanical – strength, hardness etc.

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Engineering Materials

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Suggestion of How to Select the Best Material /Process

• A good starting point--what is the best

material and process to use?
– What is the lowest cost material?
– What is the lowest cost manufacturing
process?
– Does the lowest cost manufacturing process
compatible with the lowest cost material?

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Material Prices for some materials

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Material Prices for some materials

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Quick Look at Mechanical Property
• When selecting materials for products, first consider their
mechanical properties (strength, toughness, ductility, hardness,
elasticity, fatigue and creep)
• Strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios of material are
important for aerospace and automotive applications
• Next consideration- physical and chemical properties of materials
(density, specific heat, thermal expansion and conductivity,
oxidation, corrosion, flammability, electrical and magnetic
properties
• Method used to process material can affect the product’s final
properties, service life and cost.
– For a material, do you know the difference between strong, hard, ductile or brittle,
elastics?
– Let say you need to design something, how do you determine if the design is strong
enough? Or how would you select the light material?
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Mechanical Properties and Materials

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Mechanical Properties in Design and Manufacturing

• Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior

when subjected to mechanical stresses
– Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
hardness, and various measures of strength
• Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the
designer, such as high strength, usually make
manufacturing more difficult
– The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the
design viewpoint
– And the designer should be aware of the
manufacturing viewpoint

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Mechanical Properties & Behavior of Materials

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2. Materials in Manufacturing
• Most engineering materials can be classified
into one of three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
• Their chemistries are different, and their
mechanical and physical properties are
different
• These differences affect the manufacturing
processes that can be used to produce
products from them
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In Addition: Composites
• Nonhomogeneous mixtures of the other three
basic types rather than a unique category
• Venn diagram of three basic material types plus
composites

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2.1 Metals
• Usually alloys, which are composed of two
or more elements, at least one of which is
metallic. Two basic groups:
1. Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises
about 75% of metal tonnage in the world:
• Steel and cast iron
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallic
elements and their alloys:
• Aluminum, copper, nickel, silver, tin, etc.

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• Charging a basic oxygen furnace in steelmaking: molten
pig iron is poured into the BOF.
• Temperatures are around 1650 oC (3000F).

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2.2 Ceramics
• Compounds containing metallic (or semi-
metallic) and nonmetallic elements.
• Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbon
• For processing, ceramics divide into:
1. Crystalline ceramics – includes:
• Traditional ceramics, such as clay, and modern ceramics,
such as alumina (Al2O3)
2. Glasses – mostly based on silica (SiO2)

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2.3 Polymers
• Compound formed of repeating structural
units called mers, whose atoms share
electrons to form very large molecules.
• Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to
multiple heating and cooling cycles without
altering molecular structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules chemically
transform into a rigid structure – cannot reheat
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior

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2.4 Composites
• Material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to
achieve properties superior to its constituents
• Phase - homogeneous mass of material, such as
grains of identical unit cell structure in a solid metal
• Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of one
phase mixed in a second phase
• Properties depend on components, physical shapes
of components, and the way they are combined to
form the final material

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3. Manufacturing Process

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Manufacturing Processes
• Two basic types:
1. Processing operations - transform a work
material from one state of completion to a
more advanced state
– Operations that change the geometry, properties,
or appearance of the starting material
2. Assembly operations - join two or more
components to create a new entity

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Processing Operations
• Processing: Alters a material’s shape, physical
properties, or appearance in order to add
value
• Three categories of processing operations:
1. Shaping operations - alter the geometry of
the starting work material
2. Property-enhancing operations - improve
physical properties without changing shape
3. Surface processing operations - clean, treat,
coat, or deposit material on surface of work

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Processing Operations

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Shaping Processes – Four Categories
1. Solidification processes - starting material
is a heated liquid or semifluid
2. Particulate processing - starting material
consists of powders
3. Deformation processes - starting material
is a ductile solid (commonly metal)
4. Material removal processes - starting
material is a ductile or brittle solid

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Shaping Processes

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Solidification Processes
• Starting material is heated sufficiently to
transform it into a liquid or highly plastic state
• Casting process at left and casting product at
right

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Metal Casting Process
Process Advantages Limitations
Sand Almost any metal cast; Some finishing required;
no limit to size, shape or somewhat coarse finish;
weight; low tooling cost wide tolerances

Investment Intricate shapes; close Part size limited; expensive

tolerances; good surface patterns, moulds, and labour
finish

Permanent Good surface finish and High mould cost; limited

mould dimensional accuracy; low shape and intricacy; not
porosity; high production suitable for high-melting-point
rate metals

Die Casting Excellent dimensional High mould cost;

accuracy and surface finish; part size limited;
high production rate ; limited to non-ferrous metals;
intricate shapes long lead time
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Investment Casting

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Permanent Mould

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Die Casting

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Particulate Processing
1. Starting materials are metal or ceramic
powders
2. pressed
3. sintered

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Deformation Processes
• Starting work part is shaped by application of
forces that exceed the yield strength of the
material
• Examples: (a) forging and (b) extrusion

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Metal Forming and Shaping Processes
Process Characteristics
Production of flat plate and sheep, and various structures
shapes, such as I-beams, at high speeds;
Rolling good surface finish; high capital investment

Production of discrete parts with a set of dies;

some finishing operations required; usually performed at
Forging elevated temperatures; high die and equipment cost

Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with

constant cross-section; usually performed at elevated
Extrusion temperatures; product is then cut into desired length;
moderate to high die cost; low to moderate labour cost

Production of long rod and wire, with round or various cross-

Drawing sections; smaller cross-section than extrusions; good surface
finish; low to moderate die, equipment, and labour cost

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Plastic Forming and Shaping Processes
Process Characteristics
Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex cross-sections;
Extrusion high production rates; low tooling costs; wide tolerances

Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly;

Injection high production rates; costly tooling; good dimensional
moulding accuracy

Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production

Blow moulding rates and low cost for making containers

Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs;

Thermoforming medium production rates

Compression Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively

moulding inexpensive tooling; medium production rates

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Material Removal Processes
• Excess material removed from the starting piece
so what remains is the desired geometry
• Examples: (a) turning, (b) drilling, and (c) milling

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Processing Operations

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Property-Enhancing Processes
Processes that improve mechanical or physical
properties of work material
• Examples:
– Heat treatment of metals and glasses
– Sintering of powdered metals and ceramics
• Part shape is not altered, except unintentionally
– Example: unintentional warping of a heat treated
part

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Processing Operations

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Surface Processing Operations
• Cleaning - chemical and mechanical processes
to remove dirt, oil, and other surface
contaminants
• Surface treatments - mechanical working such
as sand blasting, and physical processes like
diffusion
• Coating and thin film deposition - coating
exterior surface of the workpart. Examples:
– Electroplating
– Physical vapor deposition
– Painting
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• Photomicrograph of the cross section of
multiple coatings of titanium nitride and
aluminum oxide on a cemented carbide
substrate

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Assembly Operations

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Assembly Operations cont.

GD&T
Modifiers

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Assembly Operations
• Two or more separate parts are joined to form a
new entity
• Types of assembly operations:
1. Joining processes – create a permanent joint
• Welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding
2. Mechanical assembly – fastening by mechanical
methods
• Threaded fasteners (screws, bolts and nuts); press fitting,
expansion fits

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• Two welders perform arc welding on a large
steel pipe section

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Shape of product influence the process
1. Flat
2. Thin-walled: cylindrical
3. Thin-walled: cubic
4. Thin-walled: complex
5. Solid: cylindrical
6. Solid: cubic
7. Solid: complex

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4. Materials Selection Process
• Materials and the manufacturing process that
convert the material into a useful part underpin all
of engineering design.
• The properties of the materials (e.g. strength,
hardness) can be changed by processing, and that
may affect the service performance of the part.
• An incorrectly chose material can lead not only to
failure of the part but also to unnecessary cost.
• A poorly chosen material can add to manufacturing
cost and unnecessarily increase the cost of the part.

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Design, Materials, and Processing
• Interrelationship among design, materials, and
processing is shown the figure below

• Materials (Properties of Materials)

– When selecting materials for products, we first consider
their mechanical properties: strength, toughness,
ductility, hardness, and elasticity.
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• The strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight
ratios of materials are also important,
particularly for aerospace and automotive
applications.
– Aluminium, titanium, and reinforced plastics, for
example, have higher such ratios than steels and
cast irons.
• The mechanical properties specified for a
product and its components should, of course,
be appropriate to the conditions under which
the product is expected to function.
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• We next consider the physical properties of
materials: density, specific heat, thermal expansion
and conductivity, melting point, and electrical and
magnetic properties.
• Chemical properties also play a significant role,
both in hostile and in normal environment.
– Oxidation, corrosion, general degradation of properties,
toxicity, and flammability of materials are among the
important factors to be considered.
– In some commercial airline disasters, for example, many
deaths have been caused by toxic fumes from burning
non-metallic materials in the aircraft cabin.

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Process (Manufacturing)
• Process
– The manufacturing properties of materials determine
whether they can be cast, formed, machined, welded, and
heat-treated with relative ease.
– The method(s) used to process materials to the desired
shapes can adversely affect the product’s final properties,
service life, and cost.
• Define the manufacturing requirements in terms of such
parameters as:
– The number of parts required
– The size and complexity of the part
– Its required tolerance and surface finish
– General quality level, and
– Overall fabricability of the material.

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Cost and Availability
• Cost and availability of raw and processed materials and of
manufactured components are major concerns in
manufacturing.
– The economic aspects of material selection are as important as
technological considerations of the properties and characteristics
of materials.
– If raw or processed materials or manufactured components are not
available in the desired shapes, dimensions, and quantities,
substitutes and/or additional processing will be required, and they
can contribute significantly to product cost.
• For example, if we need a round bar of a certain diameter, and it is not
available in standard form, then we have to purchase a larger rod and
reduce its diameter by some means (perhaps machining, drawing through
a die, or grinding).
• It should be noted, however, that often a product design can be modified
to take advantage of standard dimensions of raw materials and thus avoid
extra manufacturing costs.
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Cost and Availability
• Reliability of supply, as well as demand, affects cost.
• Most countries import numerous raw materials that are
essential for production.
– The United States, for example, imports most of the amount
that it uses of each of the following raw materials: natural
rubber, diamond, cobalt, titanium, chromium, aluminium,
and nickel.
– The broad political implications of reliance on other countries
may be negative.
• Different costs are involved in processing in materials by
different methods.
• Some methods require expensive machinery, others
require extensive labour, and still others require
personnel with special skills, a high level of education, or
specialized training.
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Appearance, Recycling, & Service life
• The appearance of materials after they have been
manufactured into products influences their appeal to the
customer.
– Colour, feel, and surface texture are characteristics that we all
consider when making a decision about purchasing a product.
• Recycling of or proper disposal of component materials at
the end of a product’s useful service life has become
increasingly important as we have become increasingly
conscious of the need for conserving resources and for
maintaining a clean and healthy environment.
– Note, for example, the use of biodegradable packaging
materials and of recyclable glass bottles and aluminium
beverage cans.
– The proper treatment and disposal of toxic wastes and
materials is also a crucial consideration.

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Appearance, Recycling, & Service life
• Time- and service-dependent phenomena such as
wear, fatigue, creep, and dimensional stability are
important.
– These phenomena can significantly affect a product’s
performance and, if not controlled, can lead to total
failure of the product.
– Similarly, compatibility of materials used in a product is
important.
– Friction and wear, corrosion, and other phenomena can
shorten a product’s life or cause it to fail prematurely.
– An example is galvanic corrosion between mating parts
made of dissimilar metals.

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Typical Material Selection Criteria and Questions

1. What specific service conditions, e.g.,

temperature, pressure, chemical environment,
fluid flow rate, static or cyclic stresses, must the
selected material withstand without failure?
– Do these defined service conditions account for
possible, “worse case conditions” due to process upsets
or other uncertainties?
2. What physical properties must the selected
material meet?
– These may include a wide range of criteria including
mechanical strength, fracture toughness, density or
strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, ability to
be machined, thermal or electrical conductivity, wear
resistance, etc.

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3. Have possible materials already been narrowed
or dictated by applicable codes, specifications
or local preferences/practices (e.g., by ASME,
Mil-Specs, TEMA, ASTM, etc.)?
– Are there good reasons for the local
preferences/practices?
4. Specifically, what constitutes a “failure” in the
particular application?
5. What is the minimum acceptable service life?
– Is this a definite requirement or an ideal result?
– Is the latter justified economically?
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6. Have the most likely material failure modes in the
specific application been considered, e.g., fatigue, wear
or corrosion?
– Are there other factors besides the material selected that
may greatly affect overall reliability, e.g., quality of the
design, quality of the fabrication, difficulties in on-site
installation, difficulties in completing maintenance once in
use, etc.?
– Has a systems approach been employed in assessing the
application or is there attention only on the material?
7. Are periodic replacements of the material or component
practical?
– If so, is this approach acceptable for other reasons?
8. Is it possible or desirable to use a non-metallic material?
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9. Is weld ability an issue?
– If the selected alloy can be welded but special skills or
precautions are needed, are in-house personnel or contract
personnel available that can be depended on for
satisfactory results?
10. In known corrosive service conditions, are alternative
corrosion control measures practical?
– Can a suitable coating be used?
– Can a corrosion resistant alloy clad to a carbon steel
substrate be used rather than solid plate of the more
expensive alloy?
– Is use of a suitable chemical corrosion inhibitor possible in
the application?
– Does the application permit use of cathodic protection for
corrosion control?

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11. What are the economic consequences of a “failure” of the part or
component?
– Will a failure be inconvenient but have little effect on the overall
process OR will the entire, continuous manufacturing process
have to be shutdown if the component fails?
– What is the cost per time period if the latter is true?
– Have lost-production costs been as well defined as the initial
costs of alternative materials?
– Will a failure result in a severe safety hazard?
12. Is carrying a pre-fabricated spare in inventory practical and justified
based on the cost of a failure?
– Is it practical to carry only the needed but long-delivery-time
material in inventory and then do the fabrication when or if a
failure occurs?
13. In view of other considerations, will the initial material cost alone
govern the selection decision OR will the true life-cycle costs of using
the alternative materials be used in making the decision?

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Terima Kasih
Haris Wahyudi, ST. M.Sc