PGE 317: Map Reading, Remote Sensing and GIS

Part-B: Geographic Information System (GIS)

Lecture 7-8: Interpolation, Spatial Analysis &

Visualization
Interpolation
 Principle of Interpolation
Interpolation is the
procedure of
estimating the
value of properties
at unsampled
points or areas
using a limited
number of
sampled
observations.
 Interpolation Techniques
1. Point wise interpolation
1(a) Thiessen polygon
1(b) Weighted Average
2. Interpolation by curve fitting
– 2.1 Exact interpolation
2. 1(a). Nearest neighbor
2. 1.(b) Linear interpolation
2. 1(c) Cubic interpolation
– 2.2 Approximate interpolation
• 2.2(a) Moving Average
• 2.2(b) B-spline
• 2.2(c) Curve Fitting by Least Square Method
3. Interpolation by surface fitting
– 3.1 Regular grid
3.1(a) Bilinear Interpolation
3.1(b) Bicubic Interpolation
– 3.2 Random points
3.2(a) TIN
Spatial Analysis
 What is Spatial Analysis?
 The most important function of GIS is to enable the analysis of
the spatial data and their attributes for decision support.
 Spatial analysis is categorized as follows:
1. Query: retrieval of attribute data without altering the existing
data by means of arithmetic and logical operations.
2. Reclassification: reclassification of attribute data by dissolving
a part of the boundaries and merging into new reclassified
polygons.
3. Coverage Rebuilding: rebuilding of the spatial data and the
topology by "update", "erase", "clip", "split", "join" or "append".
4. Overlay: Overlaying of more than two layers, including
rebuilding topology of the merged points, lines and polygons and
operations on the merged attributes for suitability study, risk
management and potential evaluation.
5. Connectivity Analysis: analysis of connectivity between points,
lines and polygon in terms of distance, area, travel time,
optimum paths etc.
Examples of Spatial Analysis
Examples of Spatial Analysis
 1. Query
• Query is to retrieve the attribute data without altering the existing data according
to specifications given by the operator.
• The specifications include the following three items, given usually in Standard
Query Language (SQL).
• SELECT: attribute name (s)
FROM: table
WHERE: condition statement
• The conditional statement is represented by the following three types of operator.
• Relational: >, <, =, ³, £
Arithmetic: +, -, x, ¸
Boolean (logical): AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR)
 2. Reclassification
• Reclassification is to reassign new thematic values or codes to
units of spatial feature, which will result in merging polygons.
Reclassification is executed in the following cases.

 Generalization: reassignment of existing data into smaller number

of classes. Generalization will result in a reduction of the level of
detail.

 Ranking: valuation of attributes based on an evaluation model or

table specified by.

 Reselection :selection of features to be kept and removal of

unselected features.
Examples of Reclassification
Examples of Reclassification
 3. Coverage Rebuilding
• Coverage rebuilding is a boundary operation to create new coverages that
are identified and selected by users. Boundary operations include the
following six commands.

• Clip: to identify and preserve features within the boundary of interest

specified by users. It is called a "cookie cutter".

• Erase: to erase features inside the boundary while preserving features

outside the boundary.

• Update : to replace features within the boundary by cutting out the current
polygons and pasting in the updated polygons.

• Split: to create new coverages by clipping geographic features with divided

borders.

• Append: to merge the same feature classes of points and lines from the
adjacent coverages.

• Map Join: to join the adjacent polygon features into a single coverage and
to rebuild to topology. It is called mosaicking.
Coverage Rebuilding

Clip area

deleted area

Copy and paste

(Overwrite)
Coverage Rebuilding

Separate
polygons

Merge same
features

Join adjacent
polygons
Clip illustrations
Erase illustration
Split illustration
4. Overlay
4a. Raster overlay
4b. Vector overlay
4.(a) Overlay of Raster Data

• Overlay of raster data with more

than two layers is rather easier as
compared with overlay of vector
data, because it does not include
any topological operation but only
pixel by pixel operations.
Example: Overlay of Raster Data
 4(b) Overlay of Vector Data
• Overlay of vector data is a little bit complicated because it must update the
topological tables of spatial relationships between points, lines and polygons.
Overlay of vector data results in the creation of new line and area objects with
additional intersections or nodes, that need topological overlay. There are
three types of vector overlay.

• Point in polygon overlay:

points are overlaid on polygon map. Topology of point in polygon is "is
contained in" relationship. Point topology is a new attribute of polygon for
each point.

• Line on polygon overlay:

lines are overlaid on polygon map with broken line objects. Topology of line on
polygon is "is contained in" relationship. Line topology is the attribute of old
line ID and containing area ID.

• Polygon on polygon overlay:

two layers of area objectives are overlaid resulting in new polygons and
intersections. The number of new polygons are usually larger than that of the
original polygons. Polygon topology is a list of original polygon IDs.
Point in Polygon Overlay
Line on Polygon Overlay
Polygon on Polygon Overlay
 5. Connectivity Analysis
Connectivity analysis is to analyze the connectivity between
points, lines and areas in terms of distance, area, travel time,
optimum path etc. Connectivity analysis consists of the following
analyses.

• 5(a) Proximity Analysis: proximity analysis is measurement of

distances from points, lines and boundaries of polygons. One of
the most popular proximity analysis is based on " buffering",
buffering by
which a buffer can be generated around a point, line and area
with a given distance .

• 5(b) Network Analysis: network analysis includes

determination of optimum paths using specified decision
rules.
rules The decision rules are likely based on minimum time or
distance, maximum correlation occurrence or capacity and so
on.
Point , Line & Area buffering
 Network Analysis
• Figure shows two examples of optimum paths based on
minimum distance and time respectively
Visualization of Geospatial Data
 Graphic Variables
• Graphic representation of spatial data or
maps, thematic data, tables and network with
geographic reference and topology is very
important to communicate geospatial data
and the results of spatial analysis to all users.
• Following graphic variables are used to
display quantity, order, difference or similarity:
(i) location, (ii) size, (iii) density, (iv) color, (v)
texture, (vi) orientation & (vii) symbol.
Six visual variables
 Graphic Variables
Density: density, intensity or gray scale is used
to represent order and difference. Density or
spacing of dot pattern or screen mesh should be
carefully selected for the optimum gray scaling.
Example of density mapping

(c)

(b) Incorrect use of color to display density, (c) map showing correct
Use of color to display density.
 Graphic Variables
Texture: cyclic or repeated pattern of
data, lines or symbols will represent
difference as well as similarity.
 Density dot map
The map below shows where the highest
concentration of crimes occurs in a city.
 Relief Map
• Relief map is the representation of height variation with three
dimensional structure. Following techniques are used in many
parts of GIS applications.
• Contour map with shade: thickness of contour lines of southeast
faced slope is increased, which results in the relief effect.
• Hill shading with hatched lines: traditional cartographic
representation which is manually produced by professional
cartographers.
• Prism map: a kind of bird’s eye view with constant height with
respect to the polygon.
• Shaded image: hill shading effect of cosine of angle between
normal vector of the surface and the incident light.
• Stereoscopic view: 3D vision can be seen stereoscopically with a
pair of stereo images which have horizontal parallaxes depending
on the height or depth distance.
Examples of Relief Map
 Color Map
• Visualization using color is now available with color monitor or color printer
connected to a computer. However to select color codes of R, G, B for color
output is not easy to produce a beautiful and meaningful color image.
• The objective of color map is categorized into the following two types.
• Representation of similarity
• There are two types:
1. Numerical values of all positive or all negative in a certain order. Elevation
or ground height on the land is usually all positive. Water depth is all
negative. Such values will be represented continuously by similar color
codes, particularly by intensity or brightness.
2. Numerical values with plus and minus or over and under the average.
Temperature is an example. Red color will be used for higher values while
blue color for lower values. The average will be yellow or green color.
• Representation of separability
• Different color codes will be better used to enhance the difference of
attributes, for example land use, soil, geology, vegetation etc. To select more
than twenty colors would be so difficult to identify the color difference on the
color image. About ten colors would be recommendable.
Representation of similarity
 A n ta r c tic T e m p e r a tu r e s

Representation of similarity 3 .9 °
-9 .6 ° -1 .8 °
-3 .9 °
-1 2 .9 °

-2 3 .6 °

-3 1 .1 °

-2 6 .2 °
-6 8 .5 °
-2 3 .1 °

-1 2 .8 °

-7 1 .8 °
-7 2 .4 °
-2 4 .1 °
-6 7 .6 ° -1 5 .6 °
-6 9 .1 °
-1 3 .8 °

-9 .1 ° -2 2 .4 °
-1 0 .7 ° T e m p e ra tu re °C
0 ° to 1 0 °
M ile s -1 0 ° to 0 °
0 500 1 ,0 0 0 -3 0 ° to -1 0 °
K ilo m e te r s -6 0 ° to -3 0 °
0 500 1 ,0 0 0 -8 0 ° to -6 0 °
Representation of separability
Thank you