Specialization 11 – Scientific Reasoning

and Critical Thinking

.

Prepared by: Philner P. Salindo, Ph. D.

 What is scientific reasoning?
 abstractions or symbols
 many variables or dimensions at the same time
 probabilities and proportions
In Research
Encompasses the reasoning and problem-solving skills
involved in generating, testing and revising hypotheses or
theories, and in the case of fully developed skills,
reflecting on the process of knowledge acquisition and
knowledge change that results from such inquiry activities
(Feist, 2006, p. ix).
Deductive Reasoning and
Inductive Reasoning
What is Deductive Reasoning?

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a

general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion.

The scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses

and theories
Deductive reasoning usually follows steps :

First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and

finally an inference

Syllogism

All dogs are mammals, My dog is a Labrador, Therefore,

my dog is a mammal.

"All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is

mortal.”

"All bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore,

Harold is a grandfather."

Grand Theory Testing

 Deductive Reasoning and
Inductive Reasoning
What is Inductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from

specific observations.

Make many observations, discern a pattern, make a

generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory."
 Syllogism

"The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a

penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all
the coins in the bag are pennies.”

"Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all

grandfathers are bald."

Scientists use it to form hypotheses and theories –

Grounded Theory
 Critical Thinking
What is critical thinking?

“the art of being right” –

Making clear what critical thinking is can perhaps best be

done by describing the characteristics of the critical
thinker.
 Critical Thinking
Who is a critical thinker?

Capable of actively and skillfully applying general

principles and procedures of thought, as a result of which
his judgments will be highly reliable and accurate.

Does not just state a contention without due consideration,

not without providing sound reasons bases on reliable
sources.

Is skilled at analyzing the claims of other people and can

recognize the arguments in a text.

Open, inquiring attitude, also with regard to his own

opinions, and takes nothing for granted.
 Critical Thinking
How to develop critical thinking?

1. Critical thinking is hard - critical thinking is

something that requires a sustained effort.

2. Practice makes perfect - practice intensively in a

way that is also called `deliberate practice`: practice
that is specific, determined and concentrated.

3. Transfer-oriented practice is required - should be

trained as a separate discipline within a course; in
addition, students must learn how to apply the
acquired knowledge, skills and attitude to the other
fields of their study
 Critical Thinking
4. Theoretical knowledge is indispensable - Knowledge
of a coherent conceptual framework makes it possible to
spot and define mistakes in reasoning

5. People are prone to stick to their own convictions - it

is essential in education for the teacher to be a role
model by continually adopting a critical, open and
inquiring attitude and stimulating the development of that
same attitude

6. Making argument maps improves critical thinking

skills - Visualizing arguments, argument mapping,
stimulates the development of critical thinking skills.
 Theory
What is a Theory?

a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain

something

A set of principles on which the practice of an activity is

based.

"A theory of education" an idea used to account for a

situation or justify a course of action.

Give examples of Theories…

 Concepts
What are concepts?

Things we observe are the observable realities:

a. Physical
b. Abstract

For purposes of identification of reality + name +

communicate + becomes part of language

It is generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,

occurrences, or processes

Concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words.

 Concepts
Natural science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms.

Most social science concepts are expressed as words.

Concepts are an Abstraction of Reality

Physical of non-physical like table, leadership, productivity, and

morale are all labels given to some phenomenon (reality).

The concepts stand for phenomenon not the phenomenon itself.

 Concepts
Degree of Abstraction

Vary in their level of abstraction.

a. Very concrete ones refer to straightforward physical objects or

familiar experiences (e.g.height, school, age, family income,
or housing)

b. Ideas that have a diffuse, indirect expression (e.g. family

dissolution, racism, political power)

The scientific researcher operates at two levels of concepts (and

propositions) and on the empirical level of variables. At the
empirical level we experience reality that is we observe objects
or events.
 Concepts
Sources of Concepts

culture.

personal experiences

creative thought

observation.

The classical theorist originated many concepts like family system,

gender role, socialization, self-worth, frustration, and displaced
aggression

sister disciplines
 Variables
Is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study.

If a study compares three different diets, but keeps all 3 diets the
same in the amount of sodium, then sodium isn't a variable in that
study - it's a constant. Other features of the diets would be
variables of interest - maybe the calories or carbohydrates or fat
content.
 Variables
What are the independent variables?
Is the variable that is different between the groups compared.
For example, let's take a study in which the investigators want to
determine how often an exercise must be done to increase
strength.
These investigators decided to compare 3 groups, one group
participate in a set of specific exercises 4 times per week; a
second group would do the same exercises, but only twice per
week, and a control group would participate in stretching
exercises that would have no impact on strength. The variable
that differs between these 3 groups that are compared is an
Independent Variable. This particular independent variable has 3
LEVELS of the SINGLE independent variable - in this example: type
of exercise.
 Variables
What are Dependent Variables?
The outcome variable measured in each subject, which may be influenced
by manipulation of the independent variable is termed the dependent
variable.
 Example: study title: Effects of a new tooth paste (Yummy Tooth) on
incidence of caries in 1st grade children. The intervention group was
given Yummy Tooth toothpaste, while the control group was given an
identical toothpaste that did not contain the secret ingredient in
Yummy Tooth. Subjects were observed brushing their teeth 3x per day
with the assigned toothpaste (by teacher or parent). 6 months later,
dental appointments were scheduled, and the number of dental caries
present in each child was reported.
 In this study, the toothpaste was the independent variable; it was
different between the two groups: one level was the Yummy Tooth
toothpaste itself, and the second level (a control group) was the
identical non-Yummy Tooth toothpaste (a placebo). The outcome
measure (dependent variable) - that "depended" upon the type of
toothpaste, was the number of dental caries.
 Indicator
What is an indicator?

It is something that points to, measures or otherwise provides a

summary overview of a specific concept.

It is an observable and measurable entity that serves to define a

concept in a practical way.

For example, an intelligence test is used as an indication of

intelligence.

The indicator is linked to the concept by rules that are known as

operationalizations.
Assignment
1. What is operationalizations?

2. How to operationalize a theory?

3. Search for a theory, look for the concepts, the

variables, and identify indicators
 References:
 http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/hwaters-/psy329/329_slide_set_6b/329slideset6b.pdf

 https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/measurement-instruments-to-motivate-scientific-learning-
by-conceptual-change/58703

 https://www.intechopen.com/books/current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition/the-
emergence-of-scientific-reasoning

 https://www.reasoninglab.com/critical-thinking/

 https://www.reasoninglab.com/can-learn-think-critically/

 https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html

 https://www.google.com/search?source=hp&ei=9hhKXejmOpTbhwPc_qroBQ&q=theory+meaning&oq=
theory+meaning&gs_l=psy-ab.3...560525.573471..574072...3.0..1.40332.63427.9-3......1....1..gws-
wiz.....0.7kMsocj9Sxk&ved=0ahUKEwjoubmbvu_jAhWU7WEKHVy_Cl0Q4dUDCAU&uact=5

 https://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/socialresearch/indicator.htm

 Additional Readings:

 Patterson, R. (2019), 7 Ways to Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills, (Retrieved from:
https://collegeinfogeek.com/improve-critical-thinking-skills/’

 Basics of Research for the Health Professions by Linda L. Wright & David A. Lake (Retrieved from
http://www.pt.armstrong.edu/wright/hlpr/text/3.1.variables.htm)