PHONOLOGY

CHAPTER V
 WHAT IS
PHONOLOGY?
◦Phonology is the study of how sounds are
organized and used in natural languages.
◦Phonology is just one of several aspects of
language.
◦It is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
The phonological system of a
language includes:
◦an inventory of sounds and their features,
and
◦rules which specify how sounds interact
with each other.
 MODELS OF
PHONOLOGY
 MODELS OF PHONOLOGY:
◦ In classical phonemics, phonemes and their possible combinations are central.
◦ In standard generative phonology, distinctive features are central. A stream of
speech is portrayed as linear sequence of discrete sound-segments. Each
segment is composed of simultaneously occurring features.
◦ In non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech is represented as
multidimensional, not simply as a linear sequence of sound segments. These
non-linear models grew out of generative phonology:
• autosegmental phonology
• metrical phonology
• lexical phonology
 GENERATIVE
PHONOLOGY
 Generative phonology
◦is a component of generative grammar that
assigns the correct phonetic representations to
utterances in such a way as to reflect a native
speaker’s internalized grammar.
 LEVELS OF
PHONOLOGICAL
REPRESENTATION
 Levels of phonological
representation
◦ An underlying representation is the most basic form of a
word before any phonological rules have been applied
to it. Underlying representations show what a native
speaker knows about the abstract underlying
phonology of the language.
◦ A phonetic representation is the form of a word that is
spoken and heard.
 Distinctive features
◦Distinctive features make it possible to capture
the generalities of phonological rules.
 Linearity
◦A stream of speech is portrayed as a sequence
of discrete sound segments. Each segment is
composed of simultaneously occurring features.
What is autosegmental phonology?
◦ is a non-linear approach to phonology that allows phonological
processes, such as tone and vowel harmony, to be independent
of and extend beyond individual consonants and vowels.
◦ Autosegmental phonology treats phonological representations
as multi-dimensional, having several tiers. Each tier is made up of
a linear arrangement of segments. The tiers are linked to each
other by association lines that indicate how the segments on
each tier are to be pronounced at the same time.
What is metrical phonology?
◦ is a phonological theory concerned with organizing
segments into groups of relative prominence. Segments
are organized into syllables, syllables into metrical feet,
feet into phonological words, and words into larger
units.
◦ This organization is represented formally by metrical
trees and grids.
What is lexical phonology?
◦ is an approach to phonology that accounts for the
interactions of morphology and phonology in the word
building process.
◦ The lexicon plays a central, productive role in the
theory. It consists of ordered levels, which are the
domain for certain phonological or morphological
processes.
 The following are crucial components of
lexical phonology:
Lexical rules … Post-lexical rules …
◦ Apply only within words. ◦ Apply within words or across word
◦ Are prone to exceptions. boundaries.

◦ Require morphological information. ◦ Do not have exceptions.

◦ Must be structure- preserving. ◦ Require syntactic information, or no

grammatical information at all.
◦ Will not be blocked by pauses.
◦ Are not necessarily structure-
◦ Apply first. preserving.
◦ Can be blocked by pauses.
◦ Apply later.
Halle and Mohanan propose the following
four levels of morphology in the lexicon:
◦ Level 1: Class 1 derivation, irregular inflection
◦ Level 2: Class 2 derivation
◦ Level 3: Compounding
◦ Level 4: Regular inflection
 LEVELS OF AFFIXATION
LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2
◦ Affixes include: ◦ Affixes include:
– -ate, -ion, -ity, -ic, sub-, de-, in- – -ly, -ful, -some, -ness, re-, un-, non-
◦ Affixation causes stress shift: ◦ Affixation does not affect stress:
– photograph/photographic – revenge/revengeful
◦ Trisyllabic shortening occurs: ◦ No trisyllabic shortening occurs:
– divine/divinity – leader/leaderless
 LEVELS OF AFFIXATION
LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2
◦ Nasal assimilation occurs: ◦ Nasal assimilation is blocked:
– in + legal -> illegal – un + ladylike -> unladylike,
◦ Affixes may attach to stems: not *ulladylike
– re-mit, de-duce ◦ Affixes attach only to words:
◦ Affixation is less productive and more – re-open, de-regulate
exception ridden. ◦ Affixation is more productive and less
exception ridden.
PHONEMICS
 WHAT IS
PHONEMICS?
 PHONEMICS
◦ in linguistics, the study of the phonemes and phonemic
system of a language.
◦ For linguists who analyze phonological systems wholly in
terms of the phoneme, phonemics is coextensive
with phonology
PHONEMIC
AWARENESS
WHAT IS PHONEMIC
AWARENESS?
 PHONEMIC AWARENESS
◦ It is the understanding that words are made up of
SOUNDS or PHONEMES.
◦ It refers to the ability to focus and manipulate
phonemes in spoken words.
◦ It deals only with speech sounds and is a pre- requisite
to Phonics instruction.
◦ The English Language has 51 phonemes in spoken
speech.
WHY IS PHONEMIC
AWARENESS
IMPORTANT?
WHY IS PHONEMIC AWARENESS
IMPORTANT?
◦Phonemic awareness instruction helps
children learn to read.
◦Phonemic awareness instruction helps
children learn to spell.
 3 WAYS PHONEMIC AWARENESS IS
IMPORTANT IN ACQUIRING ACCURATE WORD
READING SKILLS:
◦PA helps children understand the alphabetic
principle.
◦PA helps children notice the regular ways that
letters represent sounds in words.
◦PA makes it possible to generate possibilities for
words in context that are only partially sounded
out.
PHONEMIC AWARENESS ≠ PHONICS

◦ Auditory ◦ Visual
◦ Speech Based ◦ Print Based
◦ Speech Sounds to Letters ◦ Letters have Sounds
◦ Phonemes ◦ Letter Pronunciations
◦ Phoneme Discrimination ◦ Letter and Word
Identification
 LEVELS OF
PHONEMIC
AWARENESS
LEVELS OF PHONEMIC AWARENESS

LEVEL 6:
LEVEL 1:
LEVEL 2: LEVEL 3: LEVEL 4: LEVEL 5: TRANSITION
RHYTHM
PARTS OF A SEQUENCE SEPARATION MANIPULATION INTO
AND OF SOUNDS OF SOUNDS
WORD OF SOUNDS WRITTEN
RHYME
LANGUAGE
LEVEL 1: RHYTHM AND RHYME
◦Hearing and identifying similar words
pattern (rhymes and alliterations)
◦Listening for detecting spoken syllables
(syllable counting)
 EXAMPLES: RHYMES

Pail - Tail Red- Bed

Cake - Make Pat- Mat Call- Ball

 LEVEL 2: PARTS OF A WORD
◦ Identifying onset and rimes (syllable splitting)
◦ Blending individuals sounds to form a word (Phoneme
Blending)

Example:
PHONEME BLENDING after hearing /c/ /a/ /t/ said in a
stretched pronunciation, the child says cat.
Example: Identifying Onsets and
Rimes (syllable splitting)
◦cat = c – at
◦sock = s – ock

◦Syllables ta…ble= table

LEVEL 3: SEQUENCE OF SOUNDS
◦ Identifying where a given sound is heard in a word
(approximation)
◦ Identifying the beginning, middle, and ending sounds in
a word (phoneme isolation)
◦ EXAMPLES:
"What is the beginning sound in neck?“
"What is the ending sound in jog?“
"What sound do you hear in the middle of kitten?"
LEVEL 4: SEPARATION OF SOUNDS
◦ Counting the number of phonemes in word (phoneme
counting)
◦ Identifying individual sounds within a word (phoneme
segmentation)

◦ EXAMPLES:
"How many sounds do you hear in the word dog?"
"What sounds do you hear in the word man?"
 LEVEL 5: MANIPULATION OF SOUNDS
◦ Substituting beginning, middle, and ending sounds of word
(phoneme substitution)
◦ Omitting beginning, middle, and ending sounds of a word
(phoneme deletion)
◦ EXAMPLES:
Replace /b/ in the word bat with /c/
Replace /i/ in the word sit with /a/
What is scare without /s/?
What is part without /r/?
 LEVEL 6: TRANSITION INTO WRITTEN
LANGUAGE
◦Matching sounds to letters
◦Syllable Splitting
◦Phoneme Blending
◦Phoneme Substitutions
◦Phoneme Isolation
◦Phoneme Deletion
 PHONEMIC
AWARENESS TASK
 PHONEMES ISOLATION
◦Recognizing individual sounds in words.
EXAMPLES
 “Tell me the first sound in sun” (/s/)
 “Tell me the last sound in cat” (/t/)
 PHONEME IDENTIFICATION
◦ Recognizing the common sound in different words.
EXAMPLES
 “ Tell me the sound that is the same in bike, boy, bell”  /b/
 “ Tell me the sound that is the same in hop, lip, mop” /p/
 PHONEME CATEGORIZATION
◦ Recognizing the word with the odd sound in a
sequence of 3 to 4 words.
EXAMPLES
“Tell me the word that does not belong”
 Bus, bun, rug  (rug)
 Mat, men, big, mop  (big)
 PHONEME BLENDING
◦Listening to a sequence of separately spoken
sounds and combining them to form a
recognizable word.
EXAMPLES
What word is /h/ /a/ /t/  hat
What word is /s/ /k/ /uw/ /l/  school
 PHONEME SEGMENTATION
◦ Breaking a word into its sounds by tapping out or
counting the sounds or by pronouncing or positioning a
marker for each sound.
EXAMPLES
How many sounds/ phonemes do you hear in:
Bell  three (3) /b/ /e/ /l/
Write  three (3) /r/ /ay/ /t/
 PHONEME MANIPULATION
A. PHONEME DELETION- stating the word that remains when a
specified phoneme is removed.
EXAMPLE:
“What is smile without /s/?”  mile
B. PHONEME ADDITION- stating the word that is formed when a
specified phoneme is added.
EXAMPLE:
“What is pot with /s/ at the beginning?”  spot
 PHONEME MANIPULATION
C. PHONEME SUBSTITUTION- stating a word that is formed when a
specified phoneme is replaced by another phoneme.

EXAMPLE:
Replace /e/ in the word set with /i/ it will become sit
Substitute /g/ in the word flag with /t/ it will become flat
PHONEMIC
ANALYSIS
General assumption:
◦Speech is composed of phonemes
◦Whenever a speech sound is produced, it is
possible to identify which phoneme the sound in
question belongs to.

◦Still, there are various problems!

 AFFRICATES
◦ Phonetically, they are composed of a plosive + fricative
◦ But, it is possible to treat each affricate as a single
consonant phoneme (one-phoneme analysis)
◦ They can also be treated as composed of two
phonemes each, all of which are established as
independent phonemes in English (two-phoneme
analysis)
 /t∫з:t∫/ & /dζλdζ/
◦ In the first case they would be considered as consisting
of 3 phonemes, in the second case of 5 phonemes
◦ Which analysis is preferable?
◦ In the 2-phoneme analysis (no separtion of affricates)
the total number of phonemes is smaller and should be
preferred as more economical (the most efficient codes
do not use unnecessary symbols)
Still,
◦ 1-phoneme analysis is generally chosen by phonologists as
preferable
The arguments for:
1. Phonetic/allophonic argument: phonetic quality of
/t/ and /∫/ in /t∫/ and /dζ/ is different from realisations of the
sounds mentioned found elsewhere, e.g. Different quality of
/t/ in “watch apes” vs. “what shapes”
- still, this argument is weak
2. Distribution
◦ The proposed phonemes have distributions similar to
other consonants, while other combinations of plosive+
fricative do not: /t∫/ and /dζ/ are found initially,
medially and finally while no other combination has
such a wide distribution.
◦ However, there are several consonants in English
accepted as phonemes in spite of not being free to
occur in all positions (think of r, w, j, h, ζ, ŋ/
3. Combining with other cons.
◦ Free combining to form clusters would support the 1-
phoneme analysis
- Initially they never occur in clusters
- Finally, they can be followed by t,d and preceded by l,
n
- Another combination: pre-final l,n can occur with post-
final t,d: e.g. squelched, hindged
- So, /t∫/ and /dζ/ do not combine freely to form clusters,
particularly not initially
 Two-phoneme analysis
◦Initial /t∫/ and /dζ/ would have to be
interpreted as initial t,d + post-initial ∫,ζ
(besides l,r,w,j) which can combine with
t,d, only.
4. Intuition of the native speaker
◦Rather difficult to discover what native
speakers (if untrained in phonetics and
phonology) think or feel.
Other problems:
◦Sounds transcribed as hw, hj
◦Velar nasal ŋ (should it be treated as a separate
phoneme or an allophone of the phoneme n
occurring before g)
 The English vowel system
◦Treating all long vowels and diphthongs as
composed of two vowel phonemes: e.g. long
vowels can be seen as containing short vowels
twice, triphthongs would be composed of a
basic vowel + one of ι,υ + ə (which makes three
phonemes altogether)
Another way of treating long vowels
and diphthongs:
◦As composed of a vowel + a consonant (j, w, h,
r),
e.g. /eı/ - /ej/, /əυ/ - /əw/,
/υə/ - /υh/, /i:/ - /ıj/. /a:/ - /ah/, /u:/ - /uw/
Thus, inequality of distribution is corrected for
consonants that do not otherwise occur finally in
a syllable.
More about long vowels…
◦Remember NEUTRALISATION of /i:/ and /ı/ to /i/;
i.e. Cases where contrasts between phonemes
which exist in other places disappear in certain
contexts
 Syllabic consonants
◦A possibility is to add new cons. Phonemes
to the existing list: syllabic l,r,n as in bottle,
button, Hungary.
 Clusters of s + plosive
◦P, t, k in syllable initial position are aspirated, but
when preceded by s they become unaspirated
and could perhaps be transcribed as b, d, g
because contrast between these two groups of
consonants become neutralised in this context
 Schwa /ә/
◦/ə/ can be treated as an allophone of several
vowels, not only of /λ/ in unstressed syllables,
e.g.
-Economy vs. economic
-German vs. Germanic
 DISTICTIVE FEATURES
◦ Distinctive feature analysis is one of many different ways
of treating the notion of phoneme.
◦ The principle: phonemes are not minimum,
independent, indivisible units but combinations of
different features.
◦ In a table showing presence or absence of features in
different consonants there would be no phonemes with
the same combination of +s and –s; otherwise, they
could not be treated as different phonemes.
PHONEMES
(Consonants and Vowels)
What is a phoneme?
◦The smallest sound unit in any language
that can be differentiated from other
sounds, such as the /s/ of sing and the /r/
of ring.
Phonologists have differing views of the phoneme.
Following are the two major views considered
here:
◦ In the American structuralist tradition, a phoneme is
defined according to its allophones and environments.
◦ In the generative tradition, a phoneme is defined as a
set of distinctive features.
 International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA)
◦ There are 44 IPA symbols.
◦ These symbols represent the 44 sounds used in English
RP (an educated accent associated with south-east
England).
◦ There are 24 Consonants and 20 vowels sounds
symbols.
International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) Chart
DIFERRENCE b/w CONSONANT &
VOWEL SOUNDS
 CONSONANT & VOWEL SOUNDS
◦CONSONANTS: (24)
◦ A consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with
complete or partial closure of the vocal tract.
◦VOWELS: (20)
◦ A vowel is a sound is pronounced with an open vocal
tract so that there is no obstruction or build-up of air
pressure at any point above the glottis.
 Consonants

A. Plosives or Stops
Plosive sounds are speech sounds produced by
complete closure of the oral passage and
subsequent release accompanied by a burst of
air.

For example, the sound /p/ in ‘pit’ or /d/ in ‘dog’.

In English there are 6 plosives:
3 voiceless and 3 voiced.
1. CONSONANT /p/,/b/ (BILABIAL)
◦ In a bilabial consonant, the lower and upper lips touch each
other. Sounds /p/ and /b/.
2. CONSONANT /t/ & /d/ (Alveolar)
◦ In an alveolar consonant, the tongue tip touches the alveolar
ridge, the ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. /t/ and /d/
3. CONSONANT /k/ & /g/(Velar)
◦ In a velar consonant, the back of the tongue touches
the soft palate, or velum. English /k/ & /ɡ/.
 Consonants

B. FRICATIVES
Fricative sounds are produced when the
articulators are brought so closely
together that the sounds are
accompanied by audible friction.

All fricatives, except /h/, come in pairs.

In English there are 9 Fricatives:
 1. CONSONANT /f/ and /v/
(Labiodental)
◦ In a labiodental consonant, the lower lip touches the
upper teeth. English /f/ and /v/.
2. CONSONANT /θ/ and /ð/ (Dental)
◦ In a dental consonant, the tip or blade of the tongue touches
the upper teeth. English /θ/ &/ð/.
3. CONSONANT /s/ & /z/ (Alveolar)

◦ The fricatives /s/ and /z/ are also

produced at the place of articulation
of plosive /t/ or /d/.
4. CONSONANT /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ (Postalveolar)
◦ In a postalveolar consonant, the constriction is made
immediately behind the alveolar ridge.
5. CONSONANT /h/ (Glottal)
◦Sound production involving only the glottis is
called glottal.
◦English has a voiceless glottal sound "h".
◦/h/ (the phoneme in hot) is a voiceless fricative,
produced at various points depending upon the
vowels in the vicinity. For example, in ‘hot’, /h/ is
velar, whereas in
◦‘heat’, /h/ is alveopalatal.
 Consonants

C. AFFRICATES /tʃ/ & /dʒ/

◦ Combination of a stop and a fricative - Affricates are
consonants that begin as stops (most often an alveolar,
such as /t/ or /d/) but release as a fricative (such as /s/
or /z/.
◦ The English has two affricates
◦ /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ in IPA.
For example:
Cheeze /tʃi:z/,
Jump /dʒʌmp/
 Consonants

D. Nasal Sounds /m/, /n/, /ŋ/

◦These sounds are produced when air
passes through the nose due to the
complete closure in the mouth at some
points.
◦We have 3 Nasal consonants.
Bilabial /m/ Map /mæp/
Alveolar /n/ Nap /næp/
Velar /ŋ/ Finger /fiŋә/
 Consonants

E. Semi-Vowel /j/and /w/

◦In their production, there is lack of friction and
the sounds are vowel-like in their voicing but
they function as consonants.
◦Consonant /j/ (palatal)
Yes /jes/
Year/jɪə/
 Consonants

F. CONSONANT /r/ and /l/

 CONSONANT /r/
◦ In RP (Received Pronunciation), /r/ is only pronounced
clearly when it is followed by a vowel sound. For
example, ‘arrive’ /әraɪv/.
◦ /r/ is not pronounced when it is followed by a
consonant or it is in the final position.
For examples:
‘Bird’ /bɜːd/,
Teacher /ti:tʃә/
 CONSONANT /l/ (Lateral)
◦ The way of air through the mouth does not go in the
usual way along the centre of the tongue. The air
escapes along the sides of the tongue.

◦ Dark /l/: the realization of /l/ found before vowels.

E.g. ‘Light’ /lait/
◦ Clear /l/: /l/ sound found in other context.
E.g. ‘eel’ /i:l/
 Consonant /w/ (bilabial)
◦ We regard Consonant /w/ as bilabial for place of
articulation because the two lips are rounded during
its production.
◦ It only occur before vowel. Like other consonants,
Definite article “a” is used with a word beginning with
/w/.
◦ For example, Well /wel/
 VOWELS
(PURE VOWELS)
◦(a). Long vowel sounds.
i: u: ɜ: ɑ: ɔ:

◦(b). Short Vowel sounds:

ɪ e ɒ ʌ æ ə ʊ
PURE VOWELS
 V o w e ls

F ro n t C e n tr a l B ack

Long s h o rt Long s h o rt lo n g s h o rt

iː ɪ ː
u ʊ
Close
sheep s h ip pool P u ll

e ɜː ə ɔː
M id
Bed B ir d A m erica Call

æ ʌ ɑː ɒ
O pen
Cat Cup Father Not, Hot

eɪ aɪ ɔɪ aʊ əʊ ɪə eə ʊə
Diphthongs
D ay M y Boy N ow Go Here air Tour
 MINIMAL PAIR: 1
A pair of words that differ only by a single sound in the
same position.

/I/ /i:/
◦ Sit ◦seat
◦ Hit
◦heat
◦ Will
◦wheel
◦ Mill
◦ Bin ◦meal
◦been
 SCHWA: /ә/ (VOWELS)
◦ Schwa is the most common vowel sound in English,
represented as /ə/ in the IPA.
◦ It is a weak, unstressed sound.
◦ Any vowel letter can be pronounced as schwa.
Stressed or not.
Man /mæn/ postman /pəʊmən/

◦ The schwa represents a mid-central vowel.

 VOWELS
(DIPTHONGS)
◦Diphthongs are types of vowels where two
vowel sounds are connected in a continuous,
gliding motion.
◦They are often referred to as gliding vowels.
◦English has 8 Diphthongs.
eɪ aɪ ɔɪ aʊ əʊ ɪə eə ʊə
 VOWELS
(DIPTHONGS)
 VOWELS
(DIPTHONGS)
◦ /aɪ/ five, eye, my ◦ /aʊ/ out, now, cow
◦ /eɪ/ say, eight, day ◦ /әʊ/ go, home
◦ /ɔɪ/ boy, join ◦/eә/ where, air, bear
The End! 