INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF

LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS; PHASE

CHANGES
Communicating Learning Objectives
a. Describe the transitions among gas, liquids, and solids
in terms of increase or decrease in molecular order;
b. Explain what is happening as a system is heated;
c. Relate phase changes to heat and temperature
changes;
d. Explain solid-liquid, liquid vapor, and solid-vapor
transitions in terms of amount of energy change;
e. Calculate heat changes in phase and temperature
changes.
VOCABULARY
Fluid – a gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
Phase – a homogeneous part of a system in contact with other
parts of the system, but separated by well-defined boundaries.
Solid – a phase of matter with definite shape and volume.
Liquid – a phase of matter with definite volume but no definite
shape.
Gas – a phase of matter with no definite shape or volume of its
own.
Intermolecular forces - are attractive forces between molecules.
Phase changes - transformations of matter from one phase to
another.
Melting – a phase change from solid to liquid.
Vaporization – a phase change from liquid to gas.
Sublimation – a phase change from solid to gas.
Condensation – a phase change from gas to liquid.
Freezing – a phase change from liquid to solid.
Deposition – a phase change from gas to solid.
Exothermic process – process that gives off or release heat to
the surroundings.
Endothermic process – process that absorbs heat from the
surroundings.
Specific heat of a substance – the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 C.
What phase(s) of matter exist in the following images?

What causes the phase change in matter?

Phase changes are transformations of matter from one
physical state to another. They occur when energy (usually in
the form of heat) is added or removed from a substance. They
are characterized by changes in molecular order; molecules in
the solid phase have the greatest order, while those in the gas
phase have the greatest randomness or disorder.
What changes in molecular order occur during phase changes?
Types of Phase Changes
• The change from solid to liquid is melting, liquid to
gas is vaporization, and solid to gas is sublimation.
These changes take place when heat is absorbed
(heat gained). They are endothermic processes.
• The reverse change from gas to liquid is
condensation, gas to solid is deposition, and liquid to
solid is freezing. These changes give off heat (heat
lost) and are exothermic processes.
How does a change in energy affect phase changes?
• Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a
substance. When a substance is heated, the added energy is used by
the substance in either of two ways:
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the
particles move faster. The increase in kinetic energy is accompanied by
an increase in temperature.
b. The added heat is used to break attractive forces between particles.
There is no observed increase in temperature when this happens. Often
a change in the physical appearance of the substance is observed, such
as a phase change.
Conversely, the removal or release of heat results in two ways:
a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The motion of the
particles slow down. A decrease in temperature is observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase change may occur.
No change in temperature is observed
The change in temperature of a substance as it is being heated can be
shown in a graph called the heating curve. The heating curve is a plot of
temperature and heat added to the substance.
In both the heating and cooling curves, there are certain portions where
the temperature changes as heat is being added or removed, and
portions where the temperature remains constant even if heat is being
added or removed. What is happening at these portions?

1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in temperature, a

change in kinetic energies of the particles in the substance is
occurring. The particles are either moving faster or slowing down.
2. When temperature remains constant during heat change, the
particles move at the same speed. The heat added or removed is
involved in breaking or forming attractive forces. A phase change
occurs at this temperature: solid melts or liquid freezes at the
melting point, which is also the freezing point; liquid boils, or gas
condenses at the boiling point, which is also the condensation point.
MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
• When a solid is heated, its temperature increases until it reaches its
melting point. At this temperature, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules has become sufficiently large to begin overcoming the
intermolecular forces that hold the molecules of a solid state together.
The heat absorbed is used to break apart more and more of the
molecules in the solid. The transformation of solid to liquid is called
melting, and the reverse process is called freezing.
• During the transition, the average kinetic energy of the molecules does
not change, so the temperature stays constant. The melting point of a
solid or the freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which solid
and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.
• Melting points are distinct for each substance. It is dependent on the
strength of attractive forces that hold the particles in the solid. The
stronger the attractive forces that hold the particles in the solid, the
higher is the melting point of the substance.
• The melting (or freezing) point of a substance when the
external pressure is 1 atm pressure is called its normal
melting (or freezing) point. For water, this is 0 C.
• At 0C and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water and ice is
represented by:
ice ⇋ water

• When heat is added to this system at equilibrium, ice will

continue to melt until all have been transformed to the liquid
state. The amount of heat needed to convert the solid to the
liquid state at the melting point is called the heat of fusion of
the substance.
MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND MELTING POINT
• Heat of fusion is an extensive property. The actual amount of energy involved in
the transformation of a substance from solid to liquid is dependent on the amount
of sample used. Thus, this property is often expressed in terms of molar quantities
of sample.
Molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus) is the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid.
• For water, the molar heat of fusion is 6.01 kJ / mol. and its vaporization is 40.7
kJ/mol. If the heat input is constant, a longer period is needed for one mole of
water to evaporate than the time needed for the ice to melt. An 18-gram sample
of ice at 0oC will need 6.01 kJ of energy to be completely transformed into liquid
water, still at 0oC.
• Like melting points, heats of fusion are influenced by the strength of attractive
forces that exist between particles in the solid. The stronger the attractive forces
that hold the particles of the solid together, the larger is the heat of fusion.
• The molar heat of fusion is equal to the amount of energy released when one
mole or 18 grams of liquid water at 0oC freezes to ice, still at 0oC.
Cooling a substance has the opposite effect of heating it, as can be seen
from the cooling curve.
• If heat is removed from a liquid at a steady rate, its temperature
should decrease until the freezing point is reached. As the solid is
being formed, heat is given off by the system, as attractive forces form
and become stronger between particles. Even if heat is being
removed, the temperature of the system remains constant over the
freezing period.
• After all the liquid has frozen, the temperature of the solid drops.
• The heat change (q) for a given sample during freezing or melting may
be calculated using the following equation:

q = m ΔHfus
BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
• In the liquid phase, there are still attractions among its particles. The particles are
still in contact with each other but are not locked into fixed positions and are free
to move past each other. Although they lack the total freedom of gaseous
molecules, these molecules are in constant motion.
• When a liquid is heated, its temperature increases as the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases. When the molecules have sufficient energy to escape from
the surface, a phase change occurs. Evaporation or vaporization is the process in
which a liquid is transformed into a gas. The temperature at which this occurs is
the boiling point of the substance. While the liquid vaporizes, the temperature
remains constant.
• The boiling point is a characteristic of each substance, and is dependent on the
strength of attractive forces that hold the particles or molecules in the liquid state.
It is also dependent on the external or atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of
a liquid at 1 atm pressure is called its normal boiling point. For water, this is at
100oC.
• The reverse of vaporization or boiling is called condensation, the
change from the gas phase to the liquid phase. Condensation occurs
because a molecule strikes the liquid surface and becomes trapped by
intermolecular forces in the liquid. This process occurs at the same
temperature when the liquid vaporizes into the gaseous state. The
boiling point can thus be also called condensation point (dew point),
and occur at the same temperature.
• At the boiling point, both liquid and gaseous states of the substance
are present, and the transformations of liquid to gas and gas to liquid
happen at the same time.
• At 100 OC and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water and steam is
represented by
water ⇋ steam
• As heat is absorbed, some water will boil off but the temperature
remains at 100 OC (373.15 K) until all the liquid has vaporized. The
amount of heat absorbed by the sample as the liquid transforms into
gas is called heat of vaporization.
• When all of the sample has turned into gas, further heating will cause
the temperature of the gas t o increase again.
MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (ΔHvap) AND BOILING POINT
• The heat of vaporization is an extensive property and is thus
dependent on the amount of sample undergoing phase
change. Hence, published quantities of heats of vaporization
specify the amount of substance, and is often expressed as
molar heat of vaporization.
• Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is defined as the energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid
at a given temperature, usually, at the boiling point. The
molar heat of vaporization of water at 100oC is 40.8 kJ/mol.
• The boiling point is related to molar heat of vaporization: the
higher ΔH , the higher the boiling point.
vap
SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
• In a solid, the particles may be in fixed positions, but they are able to
vibrate in place and with increasing intensity as temperature increases.
When particles are able to acquire enough energy to break attractive
forces with adjacent particles, the energetic particles may move into
the gaseous state. This phase change is called sublimation.
• Sublimation is the process in which molecules go directly from solid
into vapor phase. The reverse process is called deposition, where
molecules make a transition directly from vapor to solid. The process
may be represented by the following equilibrium:

solid ⇋ vapor
MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION
• Molar heat of sublimation (ΔH ) of a substance is the amount of energy that must
sub

be added to a mole of solid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas,

without passing through the liquid phase. This enthalpy change associated with
sublimation is always greater than that of vaporization even if both sublimation
and evaporation involve changing a substance into its gaseous state because in
sublimation, the starting physical state of the substance is the solid state, which is
lower in energy than the liquid state where vaporization starts.
• The molar heat of sublimation is generally expressed as Hsub in units of Joules
per mole. The sum of the heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization can give a
good estimate of the heat of sublimation of a substance.
HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
• When a system contains only one phase (solid, liquid, or gas), the temperature will
change when it receives energy during heating or when energy is removed during
cooling. The amount of heat received or removed from the sample to effect a
given change in temperature can be calculated using the specific heat of the
substance. This is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of a substance by 1 C. It is also equal to the amount of heat lo0st by 1 gram of
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substance when its temperature drops by 1 C. The specific heat of a substance

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differs for the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Water as an example, has the
following specific heat at different phases:
2H O(l) = 4.18 J / g C
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2H O(s) = 2.06 J / g C
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2H O(g) = 2.02 J / g C
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The heat change (q) for this process is given by:

q = m S ΔT

Where:
m = mass of sample in grams
S = specific heat of the sample in the appropriate physical state
T = change in temperature
Note:
Specific heat (ice): 2.09 J/g·C H =334 J/g
fus

Specific heat (water): 4.18 J/g·C H = 2260 J/g

vap

Specific heat (steam): 2.02 J/g·C H = 2260 J/g

vap
Sample Problem:
1. You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g imbedded in an ice block.
How much heat is absorbed by the piece of metal as it warms in your hand from
the temperature of the ice block at 1.5 C to your body temperature of 37.0 C?
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The specific heat of copper is 0.385 J/g- C. Assume that the metal is pure
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copper.
• PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF STATE
Sample Problem 1: How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of ice at 0°C
into water at the same temperature?
Sample Problem 2: How much energy is required to change 2600 gram of water at
100°C into steam at the same temperature?
Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed to heat 346 gram
of liquid water from 0 C to 182 C. Assume that the specific heat of water is 4.184
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J/g C over the entire liquid range and the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g C.
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 SEATWORK
Calculate the heat released when 68.0 gram of steam at 124 C is converted to
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water at 45 C.
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