Review of 1- AC Circuit Fundamentals

Series RLC circuit

 1 
  L  C  
I   
V0   tan 1   
j  R 
R  jL   
C
Transformer 1
Review of 1- AC Circuit Fundamentals(1)
I    ICos  jISin 
Re al Power
Power factor = Cos 
Apparent Power

Apparent Power =VI (multiply the rms value of input voltage

and current (ignore phase angle))
Real Power =I2 R (square of the rms current flowing
through the reristor times the resistor (ignore phase angle))
1
Series Resonance occurs when  L  0
C
1

LC
V0 is maximum in this case
I
R Transformer 2
Review of 1- AC Circuit Fundamentals(3)

Parallel RLC circuit

1
Parallel Resonance occurs when  L  0
C
1

LC
V0 is minimum in this case
I Transformer 3
R
 The Transformer

i1(t) S1 i1(t) i2(t) S2 i2(t)

M V2

e1(t) e2(t)

Coil 1 Coil 2

(Primary has N1 turns) (Secondary has N2 turns)

Transformer 4
 The Transformer(2)
• The source side is called Primary

• The load side is called Secondary

• Ideally

1. The resistance of the coils are zero.

2. The relative permeability of the core in infinite.

3. Zero core or iron loss.

4. Zero leakage flux

Transformer 5
 The Transformer(2)

i) Switch ‘S1’ is closed and ‘S2’ is open at t=0

The core does not have a flux at t=0

We will now prove the following on the greenboard:

The voltage induced across each coil is

proportional to its number of turns.

Transformer 6
 The Transformer(3)
ii) Switch ‘S2’ is now closed

A current now starts to flow in resistance R. This current

is i2(t) (flows out of the dotted terminal).
e 2 ( t ) V 2( t )
i 2 (t)  
R R

Thus a MMF N2i2(t) is applied to the magnetic circuit. This will

immediately make a current i1(t) flow into the dot of the primary
side, so that N1i1(t) opposes N2i2(t) and the original flux in the core
remains constant. Otherwise, N2i2(t) would make the core flux change
drastically and the balance between V1 and e1(t) will be disturbed.

Transformer 7
 The Transformer(3)
We will now prove the following on the greenboard:

1)The current induced in each coil is

inversely proportional to its number
of turns.
2)Instantaneous input power to the
transformer = Instantaneous output
power from the transformer.
Transformer 8
 The Transformer(3)
Observation: It was shown that the flux in the core is
m Sin(t). Since the permeability of the core is infinite ideally
zero current can produce this flux! In actuality, a current Im, known
as magnetizing current is required to setup the flux in the
transformer. This current is within 5% of the full load current in
a well designed transformer.

V 1rms N12
Im  ; L1 
L1 

L1 is the primary side self inductance.

Transformer 9
 Transformer Example(1)

N1:N2 = 1:2

i) Find I1,I2 in the above transformer. Neglect magnetizing

current.

ii) What is the reflected (referred) load impedance on the

primary side

iii) If the resistance is replaced by a) 100 mH inductor b) 10F

capacitance; what will be the reflected load impedance on the
primary side? Transformer 10
Transformer Example(1)

Solution on greenboard

Transformer 11
 Polarity (dot) convention
Terminals of different windings are of same polarity if currents
entering (or leaving) them produce flux in the same direction
in the core.

Transformer 12
 How to check polarity?

1) Measure e12 and e34

2) Connect 2 and 4 and measure e13

3) If e13= e12+e34, 1 and 4 have same polarity

4) If e13= e12-e34, 1 and 4 have different polarity

Transformer 13
 Parallel operation of transformers

Wrong connections give circulating between the windings that

can destroy transformers.
Transformer 14
Transformer Equivalent circuit (1)

I1 I2
INL
E1 E2

Transformer 15
Transformer Equivalent circuit (2)

I2

I1 INL

Transformer 16
Transformer Equivalent circuit (3)

I1 I2
INL

Transformer 17
Transformer Equivalent circuit (4)

I1
INL I2'

Transformer 18
 Open circuit Test
•It is used to determine Lm1 (Xm1)and Rc1

•Usually performed on the low voltage side

•The test is performed at rated voltage and frequency under

no load

Transformer 19
 Short circuit Test
•It is used to determine Llp (Xeq) and Rp(Req)

•Usually performed on the high voltage side

•This test is performed at reduced voltage and rated frequency

with the output of the low voltage winding short circuited such
that rated current flows on the high voltage side.

Transformer 20
 Transformer Regulation
•Loading changes the output voltage of a transformer.
Transformer regulation is the measure of such a deviation.

Definition of % Regulation

| Vnoload |  | Vload |
 *100
| Vload |

Vno-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals without load

V load = RMS voltage across the load terminals with a specified

load
Transformer 21
Maximum Transformer Regulation

V1  V2 '00  I 2 ' 2 0 .Z eq1 eq10

Clearly V1 is max imum when
 2   eq1  0; or  2   eq1
Transformer 22
Transformer Losses and Efficiency
•Transformer Losses
•Core/Iron Loss =V12 / Rc1
•Copper Loss = I12 R1+ I22 R2
Definition of % efficiency
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
Losses  V2 I 2Cos 2
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
V12 / Rc1  I12 R1  I 2 R2  V2 I 2Cos 2
2

V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
V12 / Rc1  I 2 Req 2  V2 I 2Cos 2
2

Cos 2 = load power factor

Transformer 23
 Maximum Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency varies as with respect to 2 independent quantities
namely, current and power factor

•Thus at any particular power factor, the efficiency is maximum if

core loss = copper loss .This can be obtained by differentiating the
expression of efficiency with respect to I2 assuming power factor, and
all the voltages constant.

•At any particular I2 maximum efficiency happens at unity power factor.

This can be obtained by differentiating the expression of efficiency
with respect to power factor, and assuming I2 and all the voltages
constant.

•Maximum efficiency happens when both these conditions are satisfied.

Transformer 24
 Maximum efficiency point

100 pf=1
pf= 0.8

 pf= 0.6

At this load current

core loss = copper loss
0

% full load current

Transformer 25
 Another Transformer Example
The following are the open circuit and short circuit test data of a
single phase, 10 kVA, 2200/220V, 60 Hz transformer
O/C Test (HV side S/C Test (LV side
Open) Shorted)
Voltmeter 220V 150V

Ammeter 2.5A 4.55A

Wattmeter 100W 215W

i)Find the equivalent circuit with respect to HV and LV side

ii) Find the efficiency and regulation of the transformer when
supplying rated load at 0.8 pf lag.
iii) Maximum efficiency and regulation.
Transformer 26
Transformer Example(2)

Solution on greenboard

Transformer 27
 Autotransformer

•Primary and secondary on the same winding.

Therefore there is no galvanic isolation.

Transformer 28
Features of Autotransformer

 Lower leakage

Lower losses

Lower magnetizing current

Increase kVA rating

 No galvanic Isolation

Transformer 29
Autotransformer Theory and Example

Explained and worked out on Greenboard

Transformer 30
Review of balanced three phase circuits

• Two possible configurations: Star (Y) and delta ()

•Star has neutral, delta does not

Transformer 31
 Star (Y) connection
•Line current is same as phase current
•Line-Line voltage is 3 phase-neutral voltage
•Power is given by 3 VL-LI Lcos or 3VphIphcos

Transformer 32
 Delta () connection
•Line-Line voltage is same as phase voltage
•Line current is 3 phase current
•Power is given by 3 VL-LI Lcos or 3VphIphcos

Transformer 33
Typical three phase transformer connections

Transformer 34
Other possible three phase transformer
Connections
• Y- zigzag

•- zigzag

•Open Delta or V

•Scott or T

Transformer 35
How are three phase transformers made?

• Either by having three single phase transformers connected as three

phase banks.

•Or by having coils mounted on a single core with multiple limbs

•The bank configuration is better from repair perspective, whereas the

single three phase unit will cost less ,occupy less space, weighs less and
is more efficient

Transformer 36
Phase-shift between line-line voltages in
transformers

Transformer 37
 Vector grouping of transformers
• Depending upon the phase shift of line-neutral voltages
between primary and secondary; transformers are grouped. This
is done for ease of paralleling. Usually transformers between
two different groups should not be paralleled.

•Group 1 :zero phase displacement (Yy0, Dd0,Dz0)

•Group 2 :1800 phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6,Dz6)

•Group 3 : 300 lag phase displacement (Dy1, Yd1,Yz1)

•Group 4 : 300 lead phase displacement (Dy11, Yd11,Yz11)

(Y=Y; D= ; z=zigzag)
Transformer 38
Calculation involving 3-ph transformers

Transformer 39
An example involving 3-ph transformers

Transformer 40
Open –delta or V connection

Transformer 41
Open –delta or V connection

Power from winding ‘ab’

is Pab=VabIacos(300+)

Power from winding ‘bc’

is Pcb=VcbIccos(300-)

Therefore total power is

=2VL-LILcos300cos  or 57.7% of total
power from 3 phases

Transformer 42
 Harmonics in 3- Transformer Banks
• In absence of neutral connection in a Y-Y transformers 3rd
harmonic current cannot flow

• This causes 3rd harmonic distortion in the phase voltages (both

primary and secondary) but not line-line voltages, as 3rd harmonic
voltages get cancelled out in line-line connections (see hw problem
2.22, where the voltage between the supply and primary neutrals is
due to the third harmonic. This voltage can be modeled as a source
in series with the fundamental voltage in the phase winding)

• Remedy is either of the following :

a) Neutral connections, b) Tertiary winding c) Use zigzag
secondary d) Use star-delta or delta-delta type of transformers.

a) The phenomenon is explained using a star-delta transformer.

Transformer 43
Harmonics in 3- Transformer Banks(2)

Transformer 44
Harmonics in 3- Transformer Banks(3)

Transformer 45
 Per-Unit (pu) System
actual value of quantity
•Quantity in pu=
base value of quantity

• Values fall in a small zone and computational burden is less

•Easy to go from one side of a transformer to another without

resorting to turns ratio multiplication and subsequent source of error

•Rated quantities ( voltage,current,power) are selected as base quantities.

•Losses, regulation etc. can also be defined in pu.

Transformer 46
 Per-Unit (PU) System(2)
A single phase transformer is rated at 10kVA, 2200/220V, 60Hz.
Equivalent impedance referred to high voltage side is 10.4+ j31.3 .
Find Ibase, Vbase, Pbase, Zbase on both sides. What is the pu equivalent
impedance on both sides? If magnetizing current Im is 0.25 A on
high voltage side what is it’s value in pu?

•HV side;
Pbase=10,000VA =1 pu, Vbase=2200V =1 pu
Ibase=Pbase/ Vbase=4.55A=1 pu
Zbase=Vbase/Ibase=2200/4.55=483.52 =1 pu
Zeq(pu)= Zeq/Zbase =10.4+j31.3/483.52=0.0215+j0.0647 pu
Im(pu)= Im/Ibase = 0.25/4.55=0.055 pu

Transformer 47
 Per-Unit (PU) System(3)

•LV side;
Pbase=10,000VA =1 pu, Vbase=220V =1 pu
Ibase=Pbase/ Vbase=45.5A=1 pu
Zbase=Vbase/Ibase=220/45.5=4.84 =1 pu
Zeq(pu)= Zeq/Zbase =0.104+j0.313/4.84=0.0215+j0.0647 pu
Im(pu)= Im/Ibase = 2.5/45.5=0.055 pu

Transformer 48
Transformer Construction

Transformer 49
 Transformer Construction(2)

Left: Windings shown only on one leg

Right: Note the thin laminations
Transformer 50
3- Transformer Construction (3)

Transformer 51
 3- Transformer Construction(4)

Left: A 1300 MVA, 24.5/345 kV, 60Hz transformer with forced oil
and air (fan) cooling.
Right: A 60 MVA, 225/26.4 kV, 60 Hz showing the conservator.
Transformer 52