Mobile Computing and

Wireless Communication
(2170710)

Unit – 1: Introduction(Signals)
Prof. Maulik Trivedi
 9998265805
 maulik.trivedi@darshan.ac.in
Computer Engineering Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
 Topics to be covered
 Signals for Conveying Information
 Time Domain Concepts
 Analog & Digital Data Transmission
 Frequency Domain Concepts
 Channel Capacity
 Shannon and Nyquist Capacity Formula
 Multiplexing

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 Signals for Conveying Information
 Basics: A signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field used
to convey data from one place to another.
 We are concerned with electromagnetic signals used as a means
to transmit information.
 An electromagnetic signal is a function of time, it can also be
expressed as a function of frequency.

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 Signals – Cont…
 The signal consists of components of different frequencies.
✔ Time Domain
✔ Frequency Domain
 The frequency domain view of a signal is more important to an
understanding of data transmission than a time domain view.
 As a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either
analog or digital.

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 Time Domain Concepts
 An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a
smooth fashion over time.
 In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
 A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then changes to
another constant level.

Example: Speech Example: Binary 0 and 1

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 Time Domain Concepts – Cont…
 Periodic signal: An analog or digital signal pattern that repeats
over time.
 Aperiodic signal: An analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't
repeat over time.

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 Peak amplitude (A): Maximum value or strength of the signal over time.
Typically measured in volts.

 Frequency (f): Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), at which the signal
repeats.
 Phase (): A measurement of the relative position in time within a single
period of a signal.
 Wavelength (): A distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal.
✔ E.g.: Speed of light is v = 3x108 m/s. Wavelength is f = v (or  = vT).
 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
 The terms analog and digital are correspond to continuous and
discrete, respectively.
 It used frequently in data communications at least three contexts:
1. Data as entities that convey meaning, or information.
2. Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of data.
3. Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation and
processing of signals.

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 Analog and Digital Data – Cont…
 Analog data take on continuous values in some interval.
 For example, voice and video are continuously varying patterns of
intensity.
 Most data collected by sensors, such as temperature and pressure,
are continuous valued.
 Digital data take on discrete values; examples are text and
integers.

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 Analog and Digital Data – Cont…
 An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave
that may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on
frequency.
 Examples are copper wire media, such as twisted pair and coaxial
cable; fiber optic cable; and atmosphere or space propagation
(wireless).

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 Analog and Digital Data – Cont…
 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium.
 For example, a constant positive voltage level may represent
binary 0 and a constant negative voltage level may represent
binary 1.

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 Frequency Domain Concepts
 A signals lie in the frequency range, theoretically signals are
composed of many sinusoidal signals with different frequencies
(like Fourier Series)
 Its actually composed of infinite sinusoidal signal at different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 An electromagnetic signal can be made up of many frequencies

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 Channel Capacity
 The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
given communication path, or channel, under given
conditions is referred to as the channel capacity.
 The "capacity" of a channel is the theoretical upper-limit to
the bit rate over a given channel that will result in negligible
errors.
 Channel capacity is measured in bits/sec.

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 Channel Capacity – Cont…
 There are four parameters related to one another:
 Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data
can be communicated.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless
network communications link to transmit the maximum amount
of data from one point to another over a computer network,
expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz.
 Noise: Disruption that interferes with the transmission.
 Error rate: This is the rate at which errors occur, where an error is
the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of
a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

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 Shannon and Nyquist Capacity Formula
 A very important consideration in data communications how fast
we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.
 Data rate depends on three factors:
1. Bandwidth available
2. Level of the signals that we use
3. Quality of the channel (level of noise)
 Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data
rate - one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon
for a noisy channel.

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 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
C
 Where:
✔ B is the bandwidth of the channel
✔ M is the number of signal levels used to represent data
✔ C is the channel capacity in bits per second
 According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific
bandwidth, we can have any bit rate we want by increasing the
number of signal levels.
 Although the idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a
limit.

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 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
 When we increase the number of signal levels, we impose a
burden on the receiver.
 If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1.
 If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very
sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels.
 In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the
reliability of the system.
 Exercise: Assume a noiseless 3-kHz channel, Calculate channel
capacity.

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 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 In reality, we can not have a noiseless channel; the channel is
always noisy.
 In 1944, Cloude-shannon introduced a formula called the Shannon
capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
Channel.
C
 Where:
✔ B is the bandwidth of the channel
✔ SNR is the signal-to noise ratio
✔ C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second

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 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 In Shannon formula, there is no indication of the signal level,
which means that no matter how many levels we have.
 We cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the
channel.
 In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the
channel, not the method of transmission.
 In conclusion, we can say for channel capacity that the Shannon
capacity gives us the’ upper limit while the Nyquist formula tells
us how many signal levels we need.
 Exercise: A channel with bandwidth of 3 KHz and with a S/N value
of 1000. Calculate channel capacity.

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 Multiplexing
 Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds capacity
required for transmission of a single signal.
 Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single medium.
✔ More efficient use of transmission medium.

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 Multiplexing: FDM
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in
which numerous signals are combined for transmission on a single
communications line or channel.
 It is multiplexing technique. Each signal is assigned a different
frequency (sub channel) within the main channel.
 Application: FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.

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 Multiplexing: TDM
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple
data streams in a single signal by separating the signal into many
segments, each having a very short duration.
 Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end
based on the timing.
 Telephone network and GSM utilizes TDM.

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 Summary
 Signals for Conveying Information (Analog and Digital Signal)
 Analog and Digital Data Transmission (Continue, Discrete)
 Channel Capacity (Bandwidth, Data Rate, Noise, Error Rate)
 Transmission Media (Cables)
 LANs, MANs, and WANs
 Switching Techniques (Circuit and Packet Switching)
 The OSI Model (Seven Layers)
 The TCP/IP Protocol Architecture (Protocols)

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Thank You