WELDING PROCESS IN STEEL

CONSTRUCTION FIELD
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF
WELDING PROCESSES

1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxy-fuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding
 Two Categories of Welding
Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases
adding filler metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxy-fuel gas welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals
occurs and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding
 Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a

gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma)
through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated from it
by a short distance
 Arc Welding

 A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip,

and as electrode is moved along joint, molten weld
pool solidifies in its wake
 Manual Arc Welding
and Arc Time

 Problems with manual welding:

 Weld joint quality
 Productivity
 Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)
 Also called “arc-on time”
 Manual welding arc time = 20%
 Machine welding arc time ~ 50%
 Two Basic Types of AW
Electrodes

 Consumable – consumed during welding process

 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding
process
 Filler metal must be added separately if it is
added
 Consumable Electrodes

 Forms of consumable electrodes

 Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and
3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be changed
frequently
 Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools
with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions
 In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by
the arc and added to weld joint as filler metal
 Nonconsumable Electrodes

 Made of tungsten which resists melting

 Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is
principal mechanism)
 Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire
fed into weld pool
 Arc Shielding

 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by
these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux
 Flux

A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other

contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering
 Various Flux Application
Methods

 Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

 Stick electrode coated with flux material that melts
during welding to cover operation
 Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as electrode is consumed
 Power Source in Arc Welding

 Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

 AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
 DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control
 Consumable Electrode
AW Processes

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding
 Electrogas Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal

rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and
shielding
 Sometimes called "stick welding"
 Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode
holder available for a few thousand dollars
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)
 Welding Stick in SMAW

 Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal

 Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and
carbonates, and held together by a silicate binder
 Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source
 Disadvantages of stick welding:
 Sticks must be periodically changed
 High current levels may melt coating prematurely
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

 Shielded metal arc

welding (stick welding)
performed by a human
welder (photo courtesy
of Hobart Brothers Co.)
 SMAW Applications

 Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons,

and certain nonferrous alloys
 Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its
alloys, copper alloys, and titanium
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with

shielding by flooding arc with a gas
 Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun
 Shielding gases include argon and helium for
aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel welding
 Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag on weld bead
 No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag
Gas Metal Arc Welding
 GMAW Advantages over SMAW

 Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode

 Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
 Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
 End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
 Higher deposition rates
 Eliminates problem of slag removal
 Can be readily automated
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome

limitations of stick electrodes - two versions
 Self-shielded FCAW - core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases
 Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally applied
shielding gases
 Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in
coils) containing flux and other ingredients (e.g.,
alloying elements) in its core
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas

distinguishes: (1) self-shielded - core provides ingredients for
shielding, (2) gas-shielded - uses external shielding gases
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

with arc shielding by a cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
 Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by
gravity from a hopper
 Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding
 SAW Applications and Products

 Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

 Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
 Welded components for heavy machinery
 Most steels (except hi C steel)
 Not good for nonferrous metals
 Nonconsumable Electrode
Processes
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert
gas for arc shielding
 Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
 A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
 In Europe, called "WIG welding"
 Used with or without a filler metal
 When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire
 Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of GTAW

Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications
 No spatter because no filler metal through arc
 Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes
 Weld Quality

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld joint that

is strong and absent of defects
 Also concerned with the methods of inspecting and
testing the joint to assure its quality
 Topics:
 Residual stresses and distortion
 Welding defects
 Inspection and testing methods
 Residual Stresses and Distortion

 Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during

FW result in thermal expansion and contraction that
cause residual stresses
 These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
 Situation in welding is complicated because:
 Heating is very localized
 Melting of base metals in these regions
 Location of heating and melting is in motion (at
least in AW)
 Residual Stresses and Distortion

 (a) Butt welding

two plates
 (b) Shrinkage
 (c) Residual
stress patterns
 (d) Likely warping
of weldment
 Techniques to Minimize
Warpage

 Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

 Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
 Tack welding at multiple points along joint to create a
rigid structure prior to seam welding
 Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of
filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
 Preheating base parts
 Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
 Proper design of weldment
 Welding Defects

 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
 Incomplete fusion
 Miscellaneous defects
 Welding Cracks

Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base

metal adjacent to weld
 Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the
metal that significantly reduces strength
 Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld
and/or base metal combined with high restraint
during contraction
 In general, this defect must be repaired
 Welding Cracks

 Various forms of welding cracks

 Cavities

Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
 Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification
 Solid Inclusions

Nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal

 Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules
of slag become encased during solidification
 Other forms: metallic oxides that form during welding
of certain metals such as aluminum, which normally
has a surface coating of Al2O3
 Incomplete Fusion

A weld bead in which fusion has not occurred

throughout entire cross section of joint
 Several forms of incomplete fusion are shown below
 Weld Profile in AW

 (a) Desired profile for single V-groove weld joint, (b)

undercut - portion of base metal melted away, (c)
underfill - depression in weld below adjacent base
metal surface, and (d) overlap - weld metal spills
beyond joint onto part surface but no fusion occurs
 Inspection and Testing Methods

 Visual inspection
 Nondestructive evaluation
 Destructive testing
 Visual Inspection

 Most widely used welding inspection method

 Human inspector visually examines for:
 Conformance to dimensions, wWarpage
 Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and other
surface defects
 Limitations:
 Only surface defects are detectable
 Welding inspector must also decide if additional
tests are warranted
 Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
Tests

 Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves

through specimen to detect cracks and inclusions
 Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation
provide photograph of internal flaws
 Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - to
detect small cracks and cavities at part surface
 Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on
surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting
magnetic field in part
 Destructive Testing

Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or

to prepare test specimen
 Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional
testing methods such as tensile tests, shear tests, etc
 Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent and
condition of heat affected zone, and similar
phenomena
 Mechanical Tests in Welding

 (a) Tension-shear test, (b) fillet break test, (c)

tension-shear of spot weld, and (d) peel test for spot
weld
 Weldability

Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to be

welded into a suitable structure, and for the resulting
weld joint(s) to possess the required metallurgical
properties to perform satisfactorily in intended service
 Good weldability characterized by:
 Ease with which welding is accomplished
 Absence of weld defects
 Strength, ductility, and toughness in welded joint
 Weldability Factors – Welding
Process

 Some metals or metal combinations can be readily

welded by one process but are difficult to weld by
others
 Example: stainless steel readily welded by most
AW and RW processes, but difficult to weld by
OFW
 Weldability Factors – Base Metal

 Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum

 Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer heat
away from weld, which causes problems; e.g.,
copper
 High thermal expansion and contraction in metal
causes distortion problems
 Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when
their physical and/or mechanical properties are
substantially different
 Other Factors Affecting
Weldability

 Filler metal
 Must be compatible with base metal(s)
 In general, elements mixed in liquid state that
form a solid solution upon solidification do not
cause a problem
 Surface conditions
 Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
 Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can
prevent adequate contact and fusion
 Design Considerations in
Welding

 Design for welding - product should be designed from

the start as a welded assembly
 Not as a casting or forging or other formed shape
 Minimum parts - welded assemblies should consist of
fewest number of parts possible
 Example: usually more cost efficient to perform
simple bending operations on a part than to weld
an assembly from flat plates and sheets
 Arc Welding Design Guidelines

 Good fit-up of parts - to maintain dimensional

control and minimize distortion
 Machining is sometimes required to achieve
satisfactory fit-up
 Assembly must allow access for welding gun to
reach welding area
 Design of assembly should allow flat welding to be
performed as much as possible, since this is the
fastest and most convenient welding position
 Arc Welding Positions

 Welding positions defined here for groove welds:

(a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead