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Aljabar

This document covers Cauchy's theorem and related results about the structure of finite groups. It defines orbits under group actions and proves results about their size. It proves Cauchy's theorem - that if the order of a finite group G is divisible by a prime p, then G contains an element of order p. It introduces additional lemmas about subgroups, cyclic subgroups, and the orders of products of elements. Finally, it provides three problems to prove related statements.

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Sely Purwanti n
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37 views10 pages

Aljabar

This document covers Cauchy's theorem and related results about the structure of finite groups. It defines orbits under group actions and proves results about their size. It proves Cauchy's theorem - that if the order of a finite group G is divisible by a prime p, then G contains an element of order p. It introduces additional lemmas about subgroups, cyclic subgroups, and the orders of products of elements. Finally, it provides three problems to prove related statements.

Uploaded by

Sely Purwanti n
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CAUCHY’S THEOREM

DEFINITION 7.1
(Orbit)

Let 𝑆 be a set, 𝑓 ∈ 𝐴 𝑆 , and define a relation ~ on 𝑆 as


follows: 𝑠~𝑡 if 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑖 𝑠 for some integer 𝑖.

It is easy to verify that this defines an equivalence


relation on 𝑆.

The equivalence class of 𝑠, 𝑠 is called the orbit of 𝑠


under 𝑓.
LEMMA 7.1
If 𝑓 ∈ 𝐴(𝑆) is of order 𝑝, 𝑝 a prime, then the orbit of any element of 𝑆 under
𝑓 has 1 or 𝑝 elements.

Proof. Let 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆; if 𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑠, then the orbit of 𝑠 under 𝑓 consists merely of 𝑠


itself, so has one element.
Assume that 𝑓 𝑠 ≠ 𝑠.
The orbit of 𝑠 under 𝑓 consists of 𝑠, 𝑓 𝑠 , 𝑓 2 𝑠 , ⋯ , 𝑓 𝑝−1 𝑠 .
Claim that these 𝑝 elements are distinct.
𝑓 𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑗 𝑠 for some 0 ≤ 𝑖 < 𝑗 ≤ 𝑝 − 1 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑗−𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑠 and 𝑗 − 𝑖 < p
⇒ 𝑓 𝑗−𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑠 and 𝑟 𝑗 − 𝑖 + 𝑡𝑝 = 1 for some 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑍
⇒ 𝑓1 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑟 𝑗−𝑖 +𝑡𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑗−𝑖 𝑓 𝑡𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑗−𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑠, contrary to
assumption.
THEOREM 7.1
If G is a finite group and 𝑝 is a prime that divides 𝐺 , then G has an
element of order 𝑝.

Proof (1). If 𝑝 = 2, then 𝐺 has an even number of elements, so it has


an odd number of nonidentity elements. Hence not all of them have
inverse other than itself.
Assume that 𝑝 ≠ 2. Let

𝑆= 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑒 .
Then 𝑆 = 𝑛𝑝−1 .
PROOF OF THEOREM 7.1
Proof (2). Note that if 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑒, then 𝑎𝑝 𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑝−1 = 𝑒. So the

mapping 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑆 defined by 𝑓 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑎𝑝 , 𝑎1 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑝−1 is in 𝐴 𝑆 .


Easy to verify that 𝑓 is not the identity mapping and is of order 𝑝.
By definition of equality on 𝑝-tuple, we have that
𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑠 ⇔ 𝑠 = 𝑎, 𝑎, ⋯ , 𝑎 for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Let 𝑚 = # 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑠 . Then 𝑚 ≥ 1 since 𝑠 = 𝑒, 𝑒, ⋯ , 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆. By
Lemma 7.1 and the fact that 𝑆 is the union of disjoint orbits, we have
𝑆 = 𝑛𝑝−1 = 𝑚 + 𝑘𝑝.
Hence 𝑝ȁ 𝑚, and thus 𝑚 > 1. It follows that there exists 𝑒 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎𝑝 = 𝑒. Since 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒, 𝑎 is the required element of order 𝑝.
LEMMA 7.2
Let G be a group of order 𝑝𝑞, where 𝑝, 𝑞 are primes and 𝑝 > 𝑞. If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is of order 𝑝
and 𝐴 is the subgroup of G generated by 𝑎, then 𝐴 ◁ 𝐺. Furthermore, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, then
𝑥 −1 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑖 for some 𝑖 with 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑝.

Proof (1). Suppose that 𝐵 is a subgroup of 𝐺 with 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴 and 𝐵 = 𝑝. Consider the


set 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 . If 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐𝑑 where 𝑎, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏, 𝑑 ∈ 𝐵, then
𝑐 −1 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
Since 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is a subgroup of 𝐴, and 𝐴 is of order prime, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑒 ;
so 𝑐 −1 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑏 −1 = 𝑒, that is, 𝑎 = 𝑐, 𝑏 = 𝑑. Thus the number of distinct elements of
𝐴𝐵 is 𝑝2 . But all these elements are in 𝐺, which has only 𝑝𝑞 < 𝑝2 elements (since
𝑝 > 𝑞). With this contradiction we conclude that 𝐵 = 𝐴. Note that 𝐵 = 𝑥 −1 𝐴𝑥 is a
subgroup of 𝐺 of order 𝑝 for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺. Consequently, 𝑥 −1 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 and hence 𝐴 ◁ 𝐺.
LEMMA 7.2
Let G be a group of order 𝑝𝑞, where 𝑝, 𝑞 are primes and
𝑝 > 𝑞. If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is of order 𝑝 and 𝐴 is the subgroup of G
generated by 𝑎, then 𝐴 ◁ 𝐺. Furthermore, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, then
𝑥 −1 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑖 , where 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑝.

Proof (2). Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 −1 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝐴, 𝑥 −1 𝑎 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. But


every element of 𝐴 is of the form 𝑎𝑖 for some integer 𝑖
with 0 ≤ 𝑖 < 𝑝. Since 𝑥 −1 𝑎 𝑥 ≠ 𝑒, it follows that 𝑥 −1 𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑎𝑖 , where 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑝.
LEMMA 7.3
If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is of order 𝑚 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 is of order 𝑛, where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are relatively
prime and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, then 𝑎𝑏 is of order 𝑚𝑛.

Proof. Suppose that 𝐴 = (𝑎) and 𝐵 = 𝑏 . Then 𝐴 = 𝑚 and 𝐵 = 𝑛. Since


𝑚, 𝑛 = 1 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is a subgroup of both 𝐴 and 𝐵, by Lagrange’s Theorem it
follows that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑒 .
Let 𝑘 = 𝑎𝑏 . Thus 𝑎𝑏 𝑘
= 𝑒. Since 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, we have
𝑘
𝑒 = 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑘 .
Hence 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑏 −𝑘 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝑒 . So 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑒, whence 𝑚ȁ𝑘, and 𝑏 𝑘 = 𝑒, whence
𝑛ȁ𝑘. Because 𝑚, 𝑛 = 1, it implies that 𝑚𝑛ȁ𝑘. So 𝑚𝑛 ≤ 𝑘.
Note that 𝑎𝑏 𝑚𝑛
= 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑒. Hence 𝑘 ȁ𝑚𝑛, and thus 𝑘 ≤ 𝑚𝑛. These two
inequalities tell us that 𝑘 = 𝑚𝑛.
THEOREM 7.2
Let G be a group of order 𝑝𝑞, where 𝑝, 𝑞 are primes and 𝑝 > 𝑞. If 𝑞 ∤ 𝑝 − 1, then
𝐺 must be cyclic.

Proof. By Cauchy’s Theorem, there exist 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 with 𝑎 = 𝑝, 𝑏 = 𝑞.


By Lemma 7.2, 𝑏 −1 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑖 for some 𝑖 with 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑝.
𝑡 𝑞
By Problem 3(7), it follows that 𝑏 −𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑡 = 𝑎𝑖 for all 𝑡 ≥ 0, and so 𝑏 −𝑞 𝑎𝑏𝑞 = 𝑎𝑖 .
𝑞 𝑞 −1
But 𝑏𝑞 = 𝑒; therefore, 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 and so 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑒.
By Problem 3(6), 𝑝ȁ𝑖 𝑞 − 1 or 𝑖 𝑞 ≡ 1(mod 𝑝).
By Fermat’s Theorem, 𝑖 𝑝−1 ≡ 1(mod 𝑝). But 𝑞 ∤ 𝑝 − 1, so 𝑖 ≡ 1 mod 𝑝 .
Since 0 < 𝑖 < 𝑝, we have 𝑖 = 1. Therefore, 𝑏 −1 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎, hence 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎.
Thus, by Lemma 7.3, 𝑎𝑏 is of order 𝑝𝑞, whence 𝐺 is cyclic.
PROBLEMS 7

1. Prove that a group of order 35 is cyclic.

2. Construct a nonabelian group of order 21. (Hint: Assume that


𝑎3 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 7 and find some i such that

𝑎−1 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎,

which is consistent with the relations 𝑎3 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 7 .)

3. Let G be a group of order 𝑝𝑛 𝑚, where 𝑝 is prime and 𝑝 ∤ 𝑚.


Suppose that 𝐺 has a normal subgroup P of order 𝑝𝑛 . Prove
that 𝑓(𝑃) = 𝑃 for every automorphism 𝑓 of 𝐺.

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