Threads and

Thread Cutting

1
Threads
Thread
• Helical ridge of uniform section formed on
inside or outside of cylinder or cone
• Used for several purposes:
• Fasten devices such as screws, bolts, studs,
and nuts
• Provide accurate measurement, as in
micrometer
• Transmit motion
• Increase force

2
Thread Terminology

3
 Thread Terminology
• Screw thread
• Helical ridge of uniform section formed on
inside or outside of cylinder or cone
• External thread
• Cut on external surface or cone
• Internal thread
• Produced on inside of cylinder or cone

4
Thread Terminology
Major Diameter
Commonly known as the outside diameter .
On a screw thread, the major diameter is the
largest diameter of the thread on the screw or
nut.

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Thread Terminology
Minor Diameter
Called the root diameter, the minor diameter is
the smallest diameter of the thread on the
screw or nut.

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Thread Terminology
• Pitch diameter
• Diameter of imaginary cylinder that passes
through thread at point where groove and
thread widths are equal
• Equal to major diameter minus single depth
of thread
• Tolerance and allowances given at pitch
diameter line

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Thread Terminology
Number of Threads
The number of threads per inch.

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Thread Terminology
Pitch
The distance from a given point on one
thread to a corresponding point on the very
next thread

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Thread Terminology
Lead
The distance a screw thread advances
in one revolution.
• The lead and the pitch of a single lead
thread are the same.
• On double lead threads, the lead is twice
the pitch.
•
A double lead thread has two start
points.

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Thread Terminology

Single Lead Double Lead

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Thread Terminology
Root
• Bottom surface joining sides of two
adjacent threads
• External thread on minor diameter
• Internal thread on major diameter

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Thread Terminology
Crest
• Top surface joining two sides of thread
• External thread on major diameter
• Internal thread on minor diameter

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Thread Terminology
Flank
• Thread surface that connects crest
with root

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Thread Terminology
Depth of thread
• Distance between crest and root measured
perpendicular to axis

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Thread Terminology
Angle of thread
• Included angle between sides of
thread measured in axial plane

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Thread Terminology
Helix angle
• Angle that thread makes with plane
perpendicular to thread axis

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Thread Terminology
Right-hand thread
• Helical ridge of uniform cross section onto
which nut is threaded in clockwise direction
When cut on lathe, toolbit
advanced from right to left

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Thread Terminology
Left-hand thread
• Helical ridge of uniform cross section onto
which nut is threaded in counterclockwise
direction
When cut on lathe, toolbit advanced from
left to right

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Thread Forms
• ISO Metric
• American National Standard Thread
• British Standard Whitworth (BSW) Thread
• Unified Thread
• American National Acme Thread
• Square Thread
• Brown & Sharpe Worm Thread
• International Metric thread

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ISO Metric Thread
60° included angle
D (Internal) = 0.6143 x pitch
Crest = .125 x pitch
Root = .250 x pitch

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ISO Metric Thread
D (external) = 0.54127 x P

FC = .125 x P
FR = .250 x P

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American National Standard
Thread
• Divided into four main series, all having
same shape and proportions
• National Coarse (NC)
• National Fine (NF)
• National Special (NS)
• National Pipe (NPT)

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Common Thread Forms
Coarse Thread Series UNC
The one most commonly used in the mass
production of bolts, screws, nuts and other
general fastening applications.
Less of a tendency for cross-threading
than fine threads.
It is also used on quick assembly or
disassembly, or if corrosion or slight damage
is possible.

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Common Thread Forms
Fine Thread Series UNF
When used on external threads have greater
tensile stress area than coarse threads of the
same size.
Resists stripping out better than coarse threads
in areas where the external and mating internal
threads are subjected to loads equal to or
greater than the capacity of the screw or bolt.

Used were the length of engagement is

limited
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Common Thread Forms

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Common Thread Forms
Taper Pipe Series NPT
The taper of the external thread forms a joint
with the taper of the internal thread.
When used with a sealer (such as pipe dope or
teflon tape) will produce a pressure tight joint.

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American National
Standard Thread
D = .6134 x P or .6134
N
.125
F = .125 x P or
N

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British Standard Whitworth
(BSW) Thread
Application is same .6403
D = .6403 x P or
as for American N
National form .1373
thread R = .1373 x P or
N

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Unified Thread
• Developed by U.S., Britain, and Canada for
standardized thread system
Combination of British Standard Whitworth
and American National Standard Thread

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Unified Thread
.6134
D (external thread) = .6134 x P or
N
.5413
D (internal thread) = .5413 x P or
N
.125
F (external thread) = .125 x P or
N
.250
F (internal thread) = .250 x P or
N

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Acme Screw Thread
• Replacing square thread in many cases
Used for feed screws, jacks, and vises

D = minimum .500P F = .3707P

= maximum .500P + 0.010 C = .3707P - .0052
(for maximum depth)

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Brown & Sharpe Worm
Thread
Used to mesh worm gears and transmit motion
between two shafts at right angles to each other
but not in same plane
D = .6866P
F = .335P
C = .310P

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Square Thread
• Being replaced by Acme thread
because of difficulty in cutting it
• Often found on vises
and jack screws D = .500P
F = .500P
C = .500P + .002

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 International Metric thread
• Standardized thread used in Europe
D = 0.7035P (maximum) F = 0.125P
= 0.6855P (minimum) R = 0.0633P (maximum)
= 0.054P (minimum)

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Thread Fits and
Classifications
Fit
• Relationship between two mating parts
• Determined by amount of clearance or
interference when they are assembled
Nominal size
• Designation used to identify size of part
• Actual size
• Measured size of thread or part
• Basic size: size from which tolerances are
set
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Allowance
• Permissible difference between largest
external thread and smallest internal
thread
• Difference produces tightest fit
acceptable for any given classification

The allowance for a 1”- 8 UNC Class 2A and 2B

Minimum pitch diameter of the
internal thread (2B) = .9188 in.
Maximum pitch diameter of the
external thread (2A) = .9168 in.
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Allowance = .002 in.
Tolerance
• Variation permitted in part size
• Total tolerance is sum of plus and minus
tolerances
In Unified and National systems, tolerance is
plus on external threads and minus on internal
threads
The tolerance for a 1 in.—8 UNC Class 2A thread is:
Maximum pitch diameter of the
external thread (2A) = .9168 in.
Minimum pitch diameter of the
external thread (2A) = .9100 in.
Tolerance = .0068 in. 39
Limits
Maximum and minimum dimensions of
part
The limits for a 1 in.—8 UNC Class 2A thread are:

Maximum pitch diameter of the

external thread (2A) = .9168 in..
Minimum pitch diameter of the
external thread (2A) = .9100 in.

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ISO Metric Tolerances and
Allowances
• ISO metric screw thread tolerance
system provides for allowances and
tolerances defined by tolerance grades,
tolerance positions, and tolerance
classes
• Tolerance grades specified numerically
• Medium tolerance indicated by number 6,
number below 6 indicates finer tolerance
and number above 6 indicates greater
tolerance
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Allowance Symbols
• For external threads:
• e indicates a large allowance
• g indicates a small allowance
• h indicates no allowance
• For internal threads:
• G indicates a small allowance
• H indicates no allowance

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Measuring Threads
1. Three-wire method
2. Thread ring gage
3. Thread plug gage
4. Thread snap gage
5. Screw thread micrometer
6. Optical comparator

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Three-Wire Measuring
• Three wires of equal diameter placed
in thread, two on one side and one on
other side
• Standard micrometer used to measure
distance over wires (M)
• Different sizes and pitches of threads
require different sizes of wires

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The Three-Wire Method of
Measuring 60º Threads

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Multiple Threads
• May be double, triple or quadruple,
depending on number of starts around
periphery of work
• Pitch: distance from point on one thread
to corresponding point on next thread
• Lead: distance nut advances lengthwise
in one complete revolution
• Single-start: pitch and lead equal

• Double-start: lead twice the pitch

• Triple-start: lead three times pitch

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 Double

Single

Triple

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 Internal Threads
• Cutting threads in a hole
• Operation performed on work held in
chuck or collet or mounted on faceplate
• Threading tool similar to boring toolbit
except shape ground to form of thread to
be cut

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Internal Threads

The compound rest is set at 29º to the left

for cutting right-hand internal threads.
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APPLICATIONS

Fastening
Gear reduction via worn drives
It converts rotary motion into linear motion
Prevents linear motion without the corresponding rotation
 TAPPING

Process:
Tapping is the process of
cutting of helical turns of
threads on the inside of a
cylindrical cavity (hole) on
any given component.
 TAPPING

Purpose:
A complete screwed connection requires an external
thread and a matching internal thread as a counterpart.
It can be done to components having a hole, that is, it can
be done only after drilling or boring.
NOMENCLATURE
What is a TAP?
A tap cuts or forms a thread on the inside surface of a
hole, creating a female surface which functions like
a nut. The three taps in the image illustrate the basic
types commonly used by most machinists:
Bottoming tap
The tap illustrated below has a continuous cutting
edge with almost no taper.
This feature enables a bottoming tap to cut threads to
the bottom of a blind hole. A bottoming tap is usually
used to cut threads in a hole that has already been
partially threaded.
The number of tapered threads typically ranges from
1 to 1.5
Plug tap
The tap illustrated below has tapered cutting edges,
which assist in aligning and starting the tap into an
untapped hole.
Plug taps are the most commonly used type of tap.
The number of tapered threads typically ranges from
3 to 5.
Also known as Intermediate tap or second tap.
Taper tap
The small tap illustrated below is similar to an intermediate
tap but has a more pronounced taper to the cutting edges.
This feature gives the taper tap a very gradual cutting action
that is less aggressive than that of the plug tap.
The number of tapered threads typically ranges from 8 to 10.
A taper tap is most often used when the material to be tapped
is difficult to work (e.g., alloy steel) or the tap is of a very
small diameter and thus prone to breakage.
 Steps in tapping

 1- Drilling 4 - Finish-cutting by plug tap

2 - Countersinking 5 - Finish-cutting by third tap
3 - Rough-cutting by 6 - Checking
entering tap
Power Tap

The most common type of power driven tap is the "spiral

point" plug tap, also referred to as a "gun" tap, whose
cutting edges are angularly displaced relative to the tap
centreline.
This feature causes the tap to continuously break the chip
and eject it forward into the hole, preventing crowding of
chip. Spiral point taps are usually used in holes that go all
the way through the material, so that the chips can escape.
Gun Tap

Inclination with
respect to
centreline of tap
Forming tap
A forming tap (flute-less tap or roll tap) forcefully
displaces the metal into a thread shape upon being
turned into the hole, instead of cutting metal from the
sides of the hole as cutting taps do.
Since the tap does not produce chips, there is no need
to periodically back out the tap to clear away chips,
which, in a cutting tap, can jam and break the tap.
Forming taps only work in malleable materials such
as mild steel or aluminium. Formed threads are
typically stronger than cut threads
Forming Taps
 Tap breakage & related problems
 Tap-related problems:

Wearing of tap cannot be easily quantified

Use of tap with improper tap geometry for a particular
application.
Use of non-standard or inferior quality taps.
 Clogging with chips.
 Misalignment between tap and hole.
 Over- or under-feeding the tap, causing breakage in tension or compression.
Use of improper and/or insufficient cutting lubricant.
Improper spindle speed.
The biggest problem with simple hand-tapping is
accurately aligning the tap with the hole so that they are
coaxial
The deeper the depth of thread, the more pronounced the
effect of the angular error becomes. With a depth of 1 or 2
diameters, it matters little. With depths beyond 2
diameters, the error becomes too pronounced to ignore.
Tool holders

Aids for hand-tapping (simple jigs and fixtures)

Hand-tapper: A simple fixture analogous to an arbor press
in its basic shape. Its spindle is thus held accurately
perpendicular to the work. Standard taps are held in the
spindle, and the operator turns the spindle manually via a
handlebar.
Heads for machine tool spindles
Tapping attachments
Quick-change drilling and tapping chucks
Rigid tapping attachments (for CNC)
Generally the following features are required of tapping
holders:
Twin chucking: tap is held at points of both its circular and
square cross-section. Gripping the circular section assures
concentricity to the machine spindle, and gripping the
square produces positive rotational drive.
Safety clutch: The built in safety mechanism operates as
soon as the set torque limit is attained to save the tap from
breakage.
Float radial parallel: small misalignments are taken
care of by this float.
 Break Up The Chips
The cutting teeth on a tap are not continuous all the way
around the tap body. There are usually 3 or four cutting
sections separated by a groove, called the flute, between them.
Once the first full teeth begin cutting, the metal being removed
is in form of chips. The flutes job is to provide clearance so
the chips can be kept clear of the cutting teeth and pushed out
the top of the hole. It is extremely important that these cuttings
be broken up to prevent jamming and breaking the tap. The
best way to do this is to turn the tap in the direction of cutting
until you start to feel it bind. At this point, turn the tap slowly
in reverse until you feel a ‘click’ of the chip breaking away
from the material being cut.
 The Four Components of Tap Geometry

1. The Cutting Face is the portion of the tap flute between the
major and minor diameter of the thread that cuts or shears the
workpiece material
2. Relief on a threading tap may be found on the chamfer’s
major diameter or in the threads.
3. The Base Material selected for the tap is based upon the
workpiece material or the cutting conditions for tapping.
4. Surface Treatments are typically used to prevent wear
resistance or help assist in lubricating the threading tap to allow
the chips to flow from the workpiece.
BROACHING
 Introduction
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool,
called a broach, to remove material.
Broaching is used when precision machining is required,
especially for odd shapes.
Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-
circular holes, splines, keyways, and flat surfaces.
Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is
usually favored over other processes when used for high-
quantity production runs.
There are two main types of broaching: linear and rotary.
 In linear broaching, which is the more common process,
the broach is run linearly against a surface of the
workpiece to effect the cut.
Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine, which is
also sometimes shortened to broach.
In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into
the workpiece to cut an axisymmetric shape.
A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine.
In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the
broach, which makes it very efficient.
 USAGE
Broaching was originally developed for machining internal
keyways.
However, it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for
machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces.
Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape, either the
broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the
workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard
broach geometry.
A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume
workpieces, because the broach can cost US$15,000 to US$30,000
to produce.
A broached keyway An example of a broached workpiece
The only limitations on broaching are that there are no
obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined
and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the
forces involved.
Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist
in the workpiece so the broach can enter.
Common internal holes can range from 0.125 to 6 in (3.2
to 152.4 mm) in diameter.
Surface broaches' range is usually 0.075 to 10 in (1.9 to
254.0 mm), although the feasible range is 0.02 to 20 in
(0.51 to 508.00 mm).
 Tolerances
Tolerances are usually ±0.002 in (±0.05 mm), but in
precise applications a tolerance of ±0.0005 in (±0.01 mm)
can be held.
Surface finishes are usually between 16 and
63 microinches (μin), but can range from 8 to 125 μin.
A customized broach is usually only viable with high
volume workpieces, because the broach can cost
US$15,000 to US$30,000 to produce.
Broaching works best on softer materials, such
as brass, bronze, copper alloys, aluminium, graphite,
hard rubbers, wood, composites, and plastic.
BROACHING TOOL

P = Pitch, α = Rake Angle, ϒ = Clearance Angle.

RPT = Rise per tooth, L = Land
R = Radius of the gullet.
D = Depth of the tooth.
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of
the teeth increases over the length of the tool.
Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one
for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and the final one
for finishing.
The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice
versa.
Because all of the features are built into the broach, no
complex motion or skilled labour is required to use it.
A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting
tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its
cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.
A push style 5⁄16 inch (8 mm) keyway broach; note
how the teeth are larger on the left end.
Design and construction considerations -

Material to be broached
Size and shape of cut
Quality of surface finish
Part tolerance
Production rates
Type of machine
Workholding method
Strength of workpiece
TYPES -

The many different types of broaches available today can

be grouped into four major categories:
Internal broaches
External form broaches
Blind-Spline broaches
External broaches
 Broaching Methods

Following are the classification of broaching methods:

1) Pull Broaching
2) Push Broaching
Pull Broaching
In the pull broaching the work is held fixed and the broach
is pulled through the work.
The initial inserts [1] does rough machining and rear fine
machining [2].
The entire length of the broach is pulled through the
workpiece supported by the cutting fluid that prevents
heating and carries off cuttings created.
Usually, broaches are very long and are held in a special
head.
Pull broaching method is used for internal broaching but it
also used for some surface broaching.
Push Broaching
In the push broaching the work is fixed and the broach is
pushed through the work.
Hand and hydraulic arbour presses are commonly used for
push broaching.
The initial inserts [1] does rough machining and rear fine
machining [2].
The entire length of the broach is pushed through the
workpiece supported by the cutting fluid that prevents
heating and carries off cuttings created.
This method is used for sizing holes and cutting keyways.
TYPES OF BROACHING MACHINE

There are two principal types of broaching machines:

horizontal and vertical.
In addition to these standard types, there are special and
continuously operating machines.
Broaching machines usually pull or push the broach
through, or past a workpiece that is held in a fixture.
Most broaching machines are hydraulically operated to
secure a smooth, uniform cutting action.
Horizontal broaching machines are used primarily for
broaching keyways, splines, slots, round holes, and other
internal shapes or contours.
The disadvantage of taking more floor space than do the
vertical machines.
Long broaches and heavy workpieces are easily handled.
A vertical hydraulic broaching machine is illustrated in
above figure.
The pull-up type is most popular.
Vertical machines are economical of floor space than the
horizontal type.
Surface broaching machines have their broaching tools attached
to a ram forced in a straight path along guideways past the
workpiece.
On some surface broaching machines, the ram travels
horizontally, on others ram travels vertically.
When two rams are used, the machines is called a duplex
broach.
For mass production of small parts, continuous-broaching
method is used on rotary or horizontal continuous-broaching
machines.
In the rotary continuous broaching machines, the workpiece is
loaded on the table which rotates continuously.
In the horizontal continuous broaching machines the workpieces
travel as they are carried by an endless chain.
ROTARY BROACHING
Rotary broaching requires two tooling components: a tool
holder and a broach.
A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can
achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is
called a rotary broach or wobble broach.
The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that
its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of
rotation of the work.
If the tool holder is rotated, the misalignment causes the
broach to appear as though it is “wobbling”.
 Schematic of a rotary broach starting a cut
θ Off-axis (wobble) angle
θr Rake
θf Front relief
dp Pilot diameter
w Width across corners (AC)
For internal broaching the sides of the broach
are drafted inward so it becomes thinner; for external broaching
the sides are drafted outward.
Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts. The ideal
rate of cut is defined as:
Rate of cut [inches per rotation (IPR)] =
(diameter of tool [inches]) ×
sin(Angle of misalignment [degrees])
f it advances much faster, then the tool becomes choked;
conversely, if it advances much slower, then an interrupted or
zig-zag cut occurs.
 In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so
that the load is released on the non-cutting edge of the tool.
ADVANTAGES OF BROACHING

Very high production rate (much higher than milling,

planning, boring, etc.)
High dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish of
the product.
Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the same cutter.
Needs only one motion (cutting), so, operation and control
are simple.
DISADVANTAGES OF BROACHING

Design, manufacture and restoration of the broaches are

difficult and expensive.
Defects or damages in the broach (cutting edges) severely
affect product quality.
Only through holes and surfaces can be machined.
Economic only when the production volume is large.
APPLICATIONS OF BROACHING

Broaching can be used for cutting of any material.

Broaching operation is used for machining of gears,
holes, splines, keyways.
They are very economical in the production of
irregularly shaped long holes.
Broaching is used to cutting of grooves and splines in
forging as well as in casting.