Battery and its Parameters

BATTERY
• A battery is an electrochemical device that produces a voltage
potential when placing metals of different affinities into an acid
solution (electrolyte).
• The open circuit voltage (OCV) that develops as part of an
electrochemical reaction varies with the metals and electrolyte used.
 Cell, modules, and packs :
• A cell is the smallest, packaged to form
a battery, and is generally on the order
of one to six volts.
• A module consists of several cells
generally connected in either series or
parallel.
• A battery pack is then assembled by
connecting modules together, again
either in series or parallel.
Battery Classification
Primary (Non Rechargeable) Batteries
• Primary batteries are used once, then discarded.
• Generally, primary batteries have a higher capacity and initial voltage than
rechargeable batteries, and a sloping discharge curve .
• Most primary batteries do not presently require special disposal.
• Dry cells(zinc-carbon) and most of alkaline batteries (Zn/MnO2)
• Advantages
1. High energy density since no design compromises necessary to
accommodate recharging.
2. Low cost
• Example
The Alkaline Manganese Dioxide battery is a variant on the Leclanche cell.
with electrodes are zinc and manganese dioxide but the electrolyte is
Potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries
• Secondary batteries are the rechargeable batteries.
• Generally, secondary batteries have a lower capacity and initial
voltage, a flat discharge curve, higher self discharge rates and varying
recharge life ratings.
• Secondary batteries usually have more active (less stable) chemistries
which need special handling, containment and disposal.
• Example
Lead acid , lithium ion , nickel cadmium
SPECIFICATION LEAD ACID BATTERY NICKEL BATTERY LITHIUM ION BATTERY

Anode sponge metallic Lead Cadmium (cd) Graphite carbon

Cathode Lead-dioxide nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2 Lithium Cobalt dioxide or Manganese

Electrolyte Sulphuric acid solution alkaline potassium hydroxide KOH Lithium salt constitutes

Nominal Voltage 2.1V/cell 3.6 V

1.20V - 1.25V/ cell
Charging 1)Charge immediately after use. 1)Run down fully once per month to avoid 1)Battery lasts longer with partial charges
memory effect. rather than full charges.
2)Lasts longer with partial discharges.
2)Do not leave battery in charger. 2)Charging to 4.1 Volts will increase the cycle
3)Charging method: constant voltage life but reduces the effective cell capacity by
followed by float charge. 3)Slow charging method: Constant current about 10%.
followed by trickle charge.
3)Can not tolerate overcharging and hence
should not be trickle charged.

4)Charging method: Constant Current -

Constant Voltage .

Cycles 300 to 500 cycles . 500 cycles 1000-2000 but LTO has 10000 cycles

Notes 1) Keeping lead acid much below 2.1V/cell 1)NiCad battery would "remember" the
will cause the buildup of sulfation. amount of discharge for previous discharges
2)2)on float charge, lead acid measures and limit the recharge life of the battery.
about 2.25V/cell, higher during normal
charge.
Discharge characteristics
Primary Battery (Alkaline Battery ) Secondary Battery (Li-FeS2)

• The voltage drops rapidly and causes the internal • The voltage curve is flat and the internal resistance
resistance to rise stays low.
 DIFFERENT SECONDARY BATTERIES
• Lead Acid Batteries
Cathode : PbO2
- +
Anode : Pb
Electrolyte : Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

Anode -Negative plate reaction

Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e
−

Cathode-Positive plate reaction

PbO2(s) + HSO−4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
• Nickel Batteries
Anode : Cadmium
Cathode : Nickel Hydroxide
Electrolyte : Potassium Hydroxide
Lithium Ion Battery
Anode : Graphite Carbon
Cathode : Lithium Cobalt Dioxide
Electrolyte: Lithium salt constituents
Various Lithium Ion batteries
Battery Specifications
Different Battery Parameters
Capacity & Power
• Capacity is the total amount of electricity that a battery can store, measured in kilowatt-
hours (kWh)
• A battery with a high capacity and a low power rating would deliver a low amount of
electricity (enough to run a few crucial appliances) for a long time. A battery with low
capacity and a high power rating could run your entire home, but only for a few hours.
• Manufacturer's typically rate storage batteries at a 20-hour rate
• 220 amp-hour battery will deliver 11 amps for 20 hrs
• 1 Ah means that in theory we can draw 1 Amp of current for one hour, or 0.1A for 10
hours, or 0.01A (also known as 10 mA) for 100 hours.
• If you want watt-hour rating of battery multiply the voltage with capacity (ah)
• Q= I * t
Peukert Equation

• The Peukert equation is a convenient way of characterising cell behaviour

and of quantifying the capacity offset in mathematical terms.
• This is an empirical formula which approximates how the available capacity
of a battery changes according to the rate of discharge.
• C=In T
• where "C" is the theoretical capacity of the battery expressed in amp hours
• "I" is the current
• "T" is time
• "n" is the Peukert Number, a constant for the given battery
• The Peukert Number is directly related to the internal resistance of the
battery. Higher currents mean more losses and less available capacity.
State of Charge or SOC.

• It is defined as the percentage of the battery capacity available for

discharge, so thus, a 100 Ah rated battery that has been drained by
20 Ah had an SOC of 80%

𝑄(𝑡)
• SOC=
𝑄𝑛
• Q(t) – Available Capacity
• Qn – Nominal capacity
Depth Of Discharge (D0D)
• The depth of discharge (DoD) of a battery refers to the amount of a battery’s
capacity that has been used.
• For example, if a 10 kWh battery has a DoD of 90 percent, you shouldn’t use
more than 9 kWh of the battery before recharging it.

Cut-off Voltage :
The minimum allowable voltage that generally defines the “empty”
state of the battery.

Float Voltage :
The voltage at which the battery is maintained after being charged
to 100 percent SOC to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-
discharge of the battery.
C-Rating

• The amount of current a battery 'likes' to have drawn from it is

measured in C. The higher the C the more current you can draw from
the battery without exhausting it prematurely.
• Amp-hour capacity divided by 1 hour. So the C of a 2Ah battery is 2A ,
it can draw 2 Amps of current for one hour.
Different C rates and their timing for charge
or discharge
C-rate Time
5C 12 min
2C 30 min
1C 1h
0.5C or C/2 2h
0.2C or C/5 5h
0.1C or C/10 10h
0.05C or C/20 20h

Table : C-rate and service times when charging and discharging

batteries of 1Ah (1,000mAh)
Round-trip efficiency
• A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of energy that
can be used as a percentage of the amount of energy that it took to
store it.
• For example, if you feed five kWh of electricity into your battery and
can only get four kWh of useful electricity back, the battery has 80
percent round-trip efficiency (4 kWh / 5 kWh = 80%).
Self Discharge
Battery system Estimated self-discharge
•All batteries are affected by self-
discharge. Primary lithium-metal 10% in 5 years
•Self-discharge is not a manufacturing 2–3% per year (7-10 years
Alkaline
defect but a battery characteristic. shelf life)

Lead-acid 5% per month

“Self-discharge increases with age,
10–15% in 24h, then 10-15%
cycling and elevated temperature. Nickel-based
per month
Discard a battery if the self-discharge 5% in 24h, then 1–2% per
reaches 30 percent in 24 hours” Lithium-ion month (plus 3% for safety
circuit)
 Battery Equivalent Circuit

• Rm is the resistance of the metallic path through the cell

including the terminals, electrodes and inter-connections.
• Ra is the resistance of the electrochemical path including
the electrolyte and the separator.
• Cb is the capacitance of the parallel plates which form the
electrodes of the cell.
• Ri is the non-linear contact resistance between the plate or
electrode and the electrolyte.
Typical internal resistance is in the order of milliohms.
Temperature Dependence of Li battery
Standards for Battery
Standard Number Title
IEC 60050 International electrotechnical vocabulary. Chapter 486: Secondary cells and
batteries.
IEC 60086-1, BS 387 Primary Batteries - General

IEC 60086-2, BS Batteries - General

ANSI C18.1M Portable Primary Cells and Batteries with Aqueous Electrolyte - General and
Specifications
ANSI C18.2M Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications
ANSI C18.3M Portable Lithium Primary Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications
UL 2054 Safety of Commercial and Household Battery Packs - Testing
IEEE 1625 Standard for Rechargeable Batteries for Mobile Computers
USNEC Article 480 Storage Batteries