INTRODUCTION TO CHE

CALCULATIONS

What Chemical
Engineers Do
What do Chemical Engineers Do?
 Design
 Operations
 Maintenance
 Process and product engineering
 Research &Development
 Quality Assurance
 Technical Services and Consultancy
 Management and Supervision
 Education
Employers of engineers
 Private sector/industry
 Manufacturing
 Services
 Consulting
 Government/international agencies
 Academe/research institutes
 Private practice
 Consulting
 Entrepreneurship
S&T Trends
 Globalization and mobility
 Increased competition
 Specialization
 Multidisciplinary approach
 New and emerging technologies
 Nanotechnology
 Biotechnology
 Sustainable process technology
 Energy
 Information Technology
The Chemical Engineer

An engineer becomes competent in

his/her profession by mastering the
techniques developed by ones
predecessors – thereafter comes the
time to pioneer new ones.
Problem-Solving Techniques
Skills
 formulating specific questions from vaguely specified
problems
 Selecting effective problem-solving strategies
 Deciding when an estimate will suffice vs. an exact
answer
 Using tables, graphs, etc. to solve, interpret the results
 Judging the validity of the works of others
 Estimating orders of magnitude to evaluate answers
Problem-Solving Techniques
Weiler’s Law: Nothing is impossible for the person who
doesn’t have to do it.
Howe’s law: Every person has a scheme which will not
work
90/90 Law: The first 10% of the task takes 90% of the
time. The remaining 90% takes the remaining 10%
Gordon Law: If a project is not worth doing, it’s not worth
doing well.
Slack’s Law: The least you will settle for is the most you
can expect to get.
Problem-Solving Techniques
 Understand the problem and the goals

 Formulate the option for solution

 Consider the constraints

 Execute the selected problem-solving strategy

 Evaluate the procedure and results

 Problem-Solving Techniques
Read the Problem yes

Analyze and try to understand the problem Select strategy from

• Review and write down the key features among options
• draw a diagram of flows, variables
• State what the problem is; the objective(s) Obtain and check answer
• Enter known data on diagram • is it reasonable in magnitude?
• List relevant physical laws, principles • Try to alternate path to answer
• employ suitable notation • Interpret results
• fix the system. • Does it satisfy assumptions,
• list assumptions, inferred conditions. constraints?
• Locate missing information.
• Pick a basis
No

Plan the Problem-solving strategy Can the problem be converted

to standard type?

Standard or known No yes No

yes Generate alternative ways

Problem-Solving Techniques
Generate alternative ways
• Review other key relations
• hypothesize, visualize
• divide the problem into simples
sub-problems
• simplify, approximate
• eliminate alternatives that are
too expensive or will not reach
objectives

Design a new strategy

Execute the strategy; check each

step to eliminate blunders

Obtain and check answer

• Is it reasonable in magnitude?
• Interpret results
• does it satisfy assumptions,
constraints
INTRODUCTION TO CHE
CALCULATIONS

Dimensions and Units

“Physical theories gain their definiteness from
the mathematical form in which they are
expressed. The function of numbering and
measuring is indispensable in order to
reproduce the raw material of facts that are
to be reproduced and unified in theory.”
Dr. E. A. Cassirer
German philosopher
The Need to Know Dimensions & Units

 Thorough knowledge of dimensions and the

various systems of units for logical understanding
of the subject
 Engineers converse effectively in formula and units
 Communication is required in commonly accepted
units
 Expression of results of measurements and/or of
calculations in a symbolic and numerical form is
essential for the development of physics, chemistry
and technology
Dimensions and Systems of Units
 Physical quantity can be expressed as product of a
pure number and unit
 Physical quantities
 Fundamental quantities: length, mass, time,
temperature (L, M, t, T)
 Dimensions or base units
 Derived quantities - derived from fundamental
quantities: area, force, pressure, energy, etc.
 Represented algebraically in terms of multiplication
and division of fundamental quantities.
Dimensions and Systems of Units
 Addition, Subtraction, Equality
 You can add, subtract, or equate numerical
quantities only if the units of the quantities are the
same
 Multiplication and division
 You can multiply or divide units at will
 You can not cancel or merge units unless they
are identical
 Dimensions and Systems of Units
Fundamental System of Units Symbolic Dimensions
Quantity Abbreviation
SI Metric fps SI Metric Fps

Length Meter Meter Foot m m ft L

Mass Kilogram Kilogram Pound Kg Kg lb M
Temperature Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit K o
C F
o
T
Time Second Second Second s s s t
Electric Ampere Ampere Ampere A A A I
current
Amount of Mole Mol N
substance
Luminous Candela cd
intensity
 Dimensions and Systems of Units
Derived Units in Abbreviated Symbol Dimensions
Quantities SI / mks / cgs units
Mass Kilogram Kg M M
gram g
Area Square meters m2 A (S) L2
Square centimeters cm2
Volume Cubic meters m3 V(v) L3
Cubic centimeters cm3 L3
Cubic decimeter dm3 L3
Capacity Liters L V L3
Linear velocity Meters per second m/s U, v, w Lt-1
Linear acceleration meters per second m/s2 a, g (free fall) Lt-2
per second
 Dimensions and Systems of Units
Derived Units in Abbreviated Symbol Dimensions
Quantities SI / mks / cgs units
density Kilogram per cubic Kg/m3  ML-3
meter
Grams per milliliter g/cm3
Specific volume Cubic meters per M3/kg L-3M-1
kilogram
Force Newtons N F MLt-2
Kilogram-force Kgf
dynes dyn
Pressure Newton per square N/m2(Pa) P ML-1t-2
meter (pascal)
Kilogram-force per Kgf/cm2 FL-2
square centimeter
 Dimensions and Systems of Units
Derived Units in Abbreviated Symbol Dimensions
Quantities SI / mks / cgs units
Work / Energy Joules J W ML2t-2
ergs erg
Meter kilogram force m-kgf
MF
Heat / Enthalpy Joules J Q, Q, H ML2t-2
Kilocalories kcal
Power Kilowatts kW P ML2t-3
horsepower hp MFt-1
Heat Flow Joules per second J/s or W P ML2t-3
Kilocalories per hour Kcal/h
 Dimensions and Systems of Units
Derived Units in Abbreviated Symbol Dimensions
Quantities SI / mks / cgs units
Mass flow rate Kilogram per second Kg/s m Mt-1
Volumetric flow Cubic meters per m3/s q L3t-1
rate second
Heat capacity Joules per kilogram J/kg-K C L2t-1T-1
per Kelvin
Kilocalories per Kcal/kg-oC
kilogram per degree
Celsius
Heat Flow Joules per second J/s or W P ML2t-3
Kilocalories per hour Kcal/h

Molar heat Joules per mole per J/mol-K Cm ML2t-2n-1T-1

capacity Kelvin
Kilocalories per Kcal/kmol-oC
kilogram mole per
degree Celsius
Dimensions and Systems of Units
SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Factor Prefix
1024 yotta 10-1 deci
1021 zetta 10-2 centi
1018 exa 10-3 milli
1015 peta 10-6 micro
1012 tera 10-9 nano
109 giga 10-12 pico
106 mega 10-15 femto
103 kilo 10-18 atto
102 hecto 10-21 zepto
101 deca 10-24 yocto
Derived Quantities: Force
 Force is the product of mass(M) and acceleration (a)
From Newton’s Second law:

Ma
F
gc
g c  9.81(kg.m) / (kgf.s 2 )
 1(kg.m) /( N .s 2 )
 32.174( ft.lb) / (lbf.s )
2
Derived Quantities: Force
 The kilogram force (kgf) is the force, which when
applied to a body having a mass of 1 kg gives it
an acceleration of 9.806 m/s2
 The pound force (lbf) is the force, which when
applied to a body having a mass of 1 lb gives it
an acceleration of 32.174 ft/s2
 The force becomes weight when the body acts
under gravitational acceleration, i. e., when a = g.
Derived Quantities: Volume
 Volume is measured in cubic meters, liters (SI) and in
gallons (fps).
 A liter is the volume occupied by a mass of 1 kg of pure
air-free water at the temperature of its maximum density
(at 277.15 K or 4oC) under normal atmospheric pressure.
 The cubic decimeter and liter are unequal and differ by
20 parts in 106 parts (ppm).
1 liter = 1.000 028 cubic decimeters
Derived Quantities: Volume
 Volume

 Approximately, 1 cubic meter = 1000 liters.

 The imperial gallon is the volume occupied by a

quantity of distilled water, which weighs 10 lb in
air at 62oF (289.82 K or 16.67oC) and 30 in Hg
(762 torr).
 The US gallon is equal to 231 in3 (3.7854 L)
Derived Quantities: Pressure
 Pressure is the force acting on unit area exposed to the
pressure

F
P
A
 Common units of pressure
 SI: N/m2 (known as Pascal, Pa)
 mks: kgf/cm2
 fps: lbf/in2 (commonly known as psi)
Derived Quantities: Pressure
 Pressure is normally measured with the help of a gauge
which registers the difference between the pressure in the
vessel and the local atmospheric pressure.
 Over pressure or gauge pressure
 The letter ‘g’ follows the unit

 To determine the true pressure, the local atmospheric

pressure is added to the gauge pressure. This is called
the absolute pressure, the letter ‘a’ follows the unit.
Derived Quantities: Pressure
 Standard atmospheric pressure: 1 atm
 1 atm = 101 325 Pa
 1 bar = 105 Pa
= 1.019 716 kgf/cm2
= 0.986 923 atm

 Pressure is sometimes expressed as pressure head.

 Pressure head = absolute pressure/density
Derived Quantities: Pressure
 The more commonly used pressure heads are in
terms of mercury and water columns
 1 atm = 760 torr (or mm Hg)
= 10.33 m H2O

 Vacuum refers to sub-atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure - vacuum
Derived Quantities: Work
(Energy) & Power
 Work (energy) is the product of force acting on a body and
the distance travelled by the body.

 Units of work
W  Fd
 SI: joule
 mks: m.kgf
 cgs: erg
 fps: ft.lbf
Derived Quantities: Work
(Energy) & Power
 One joule is the work done when the point of
application of one newton force moves a distance
of 1 m in the direction of the applied force
 One erg is the work done when the point of
application of one dyne of force moves a distance
of 1 cm in the direction of the applied force.
1 J = 107 erg
Derived Quantities: Work
(Energy) & Power
 Power (P) is defined as the work (W) done per unit time.

W
1 Watt = 1 J/s
P
t
1 metric horsepower = 75 (m.kgf)/s
= 0.9886 32 hp
1 British horsepower = 550 (ft.lbf)/s
= 0.7457 kW
Derived Quantities: Heat
 Heat is a form of energy that flows from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
 Units of heat
 SI: joule (J)
 mks: kilocalorie (kcal)
 cgs: calorie (cal)
 fps: British thermal unit (Btu)
Derived Quantities: Heat
 1 cal (thermochemical) = 4.14 J
 1 cal (international steam tables) = 1055 056 J
 1 Celcius Heat Unit (CHU) = 1.8 Btu
 1 Therm = 105 Btu


 Units of heat flux (i. e., heat flow) rate is customarily

expressed in units of power, i. e., watts (W).
Derived Quantities: Work
(Energy) & Power
 Energy is a physical entity present in a
system in different forms:
 Mechanical work
 electromagnetic
 chemical or thermal
Use of Units
 An exponent attached to a compound prefix-unit
implies that the exponent refers to the entire
compound unit and not just the base symbol.
Example: cm3 means volume of a cube having 1 cm
side

 The product of two or more units may be indicated in

any one of the following ways
Correct: N.m or N m
Incorrect: Nm
Use of Units
 A solidus (oblique stroke, /), a horizontal line or
negative powers may be used to express derived
unit, formed from two others by division.
Example: m/s, m.s–1, or m s–1

 A solidus must not be repeated on the same line

unless ambiguity is avoided by parenthesis
Correct: m/s2, m.s–2, or m s–2
J/(mol.K), J.mol–1.K–1
Incorrect: m/s/s, J/mol.K, or J/mol/K
Use of Units
 Unit symbols do not change in the plural.
Example: 5 centimeters is abbreviated as 5 cm and
not 5 cms

 Unit symbols are not followed by a full stop (period)

except at the end of a sentence
Correct: 8 kg
Incorrect: 8 kg.
Use of Units
 Prefix symbols are written without any space
between the prefix symbol and unit symbol.
Correct: 10.5 kW
Incorrect: 10.5 k W

 Although kilogram is the base unit in SI units, names

of decimal multiples and sub-multiples of mass are
formed by attaching prefixes to the word ‘gram’
Correct: 1 mg
Incorrect: 1 kg.
Use of Units
 Good practice recommends selection of a prefix
which, whenever possible, provides a numerical
value between 0.1 and 1000. Prefer expression 10.0
kPa over 0.01 MPa. However, when a ground of
values is tabulated, they should be expressed in the
same unit multiple even though their numerical value
lies outside 0.1 to 1000.
1.2 x 104 N can be written as 12 kN
1421 Pa can be written as 1.421 kPa
Use of Units
 If the magnitude of the number is less than unity, the
decimal sign should preferably be preceded by a
zero.
.125 should be written as 0.125

 The SI prefixes are not to be used with oC and K

Dimensional Consistency
 Basic principle: equations must be dimensionally
consistent
 Each term in an equation must have the same net
dimensions and units as every other term to which it is
added, subtracted, or equaled.
 Helps identify the dimensions and units of terms or quantities
in an equation.

Example: van der Waals Equation

 a 
 p  2 V  b   RT Unit of a must be (pressure)(volume)2
 V  Unit of b must have the same unit as V
Dimensional Consistency
 Dimensionless Numbers
Dv
 Reynolds Number (Re) Re 


hD
 Nusselt number (Nu) Nu 
k

Cp
 Prandtl Number (Pr) Pr 
k
Dimensional Consistency
 Dimensionless Numbers

 Reynolds Number (Re) Dv

Re 
In SI units:

D = diameter, m
v = velocity, m/s
 = density, kg/m3
 = viscosity, kg/(m s)
Dimensional Consistency
 Dimensionless Numbers

 Nusselt number (Nu) hD

Nu 
k
In SI units:
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 K)
D = diameter, m
k = thermal conductivity, W/(m K)
Dimensional Consistency
 Dimensionless Numbers

Prandtl Number (Pr)

Cp

Pr 
k
In SI units:
Cp = specific heat, J/(kg K)
 = viscosity, kg/(m s)
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-s
Exercises
1. The volumetric flow rate of kerosene in 80 mm nominal
pipe is 75 gallons per minute. Taking the density of
kerosene as 0.8 kg/dm3 find the mass flow rate in kg/s.
2. Steam is flowing at the rate of 2000 kg/h in a 3-in pipe at
440 kPa absolute and 453 K. At this condition, the
specific volume of steam is 0.461 m3/kg. Calculate the
velocity of the steam in the pipeline in m/s.
3. A ton of refrigeration (TR) is classically defined as the
rate of heat absorption equivalent to the latent heat in a
short ton (200 lb) of ice melted in 24 hours. Latent heat
of fusion of ice is 144 Btu/lb at 32oF. Calculate the
equivalent energy in kW equivalent to 1 TR
Exercises
4. Make the following conversions:
a. wavelength 5500Å to nm
5. A force equal to 192.6 kgf is applied on a piston with a
diameter of 5 cm. Find the pressure exerted on the
piston in kPa , bar, and psi
6. Iron metal weighing 500 lb occupies a volume of 29.25
L. calculate the density of Fe in kg/dm3.
7. The diameter and height of a vertical cylindrical tank are
5 ft and 6 ft 6 in respectively. It is full up to 75% height
with carbon terachloride, the density of which is 1.6
kg/L. Find the mass in kg
Exercises
8. A bag filter of 5 micron rating is designed for a pressure drop of
0.05 lbf/in2 per US gallon per minute of water solution in clean
conditions. Calculate the pressure drop in kPa from the filter for
water flow rate of 10 m3/h
INTRODUCTION TO CHE
CALCULATIONS

Process Variables
Temperature
212 672 Boiling point of 373 100
180 water at 760 mm Hg

100
32 492 Freezing point of water 273 0
0 460 255 -18
-40 420 233 -40
Fahrenheit

Celcius
Rankine

Absolute Zero Kelvin

-460 0 0 -273
Temperature
Temperature
 Reference points: 0oC, 100oC
32oF, 212oF
 oC is a larger interval than oF

o F  o R oC  o K
Fahrenheit

Celsius
Size
Kelvin
Rankine

o C o C  1.8o F
of  1.8
1 unit F
o

K K  1.8o R
 1.8
R
o
Temperature

1o R 1 K
To R  To F o  460 TK  To C o  273
1 F 1 C

1o C
1.8 F T o C  T o F  32
o
To F  32  To C 1.8o F
1oC
Exercises
9. The heat capacity of sulfuric acid has the units J/(g mol)(oC),
and is given by the relation

heat capacity = 139.1 + 1.56 x 10–1 T

where T is expressed in oC. Modify the formula so that the

resulting expression has the associated units in Btu/(lb mol)(oR)
and T in oR.
Exercises
10. The heat capacity of gaseous n-butane has the units Btu/(lb
mol)(oR), and is given by the relation

heat capacity = 4.429 + 40.159 x 10–3 T – 68.562 x 10–7 T2

where T is expressed in oR. Convert the equation in SI units.

Exercises
11. Vapor pressure of benzene in the temperature range of 280.65
K (7.5oC) can be calculated using the following Antoine equation:

1211 .0
log10 p  6.9057 
(t  220.8)
where p = vapor pressure in mm Hg
t = temperature in oC

Convert the equation in SI units.

Exercises
12. The following equation represents the local heat transfer coefficient of fluid. Convert the empirical
equation to SI units

0.023G 0.8 k 0.67Cp 0.33

h
D 0.2  0.47
h = Btu/ft2 h oF
G = lb/ft2 s
Cp = Btu/lb oF
k = Btu/ft h oF
D = ft
 = lb/ft s
Exercises
13. The emissive power of a blackbody depends on the fourth power of the temperature and is given by

where W = emission power, Btu/ft 2 h

A = Stefan Boltzman constant
= 0.171 x 10-8 Btu/ft2 h R4
What is the value of A in the units J/m 2 s K4?

W  AT 4
Pressure
 Pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which
the force acts.
 Some units of pressure:
 N/m2 or pascal (Pa)
 dynes/cm2
 Lbf/in2 or psi
 Kgf/cm2
 mm Hg
 in Hg
 in H2O
 atm
Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

 If a fluid is within a container its

depth (or height) can be
measured.
 The deeper the water, the more
pressure is exerted at the bottom
of the container. This is because of
the weight of the fluid.
 The more dense the fluid, the more
pressure is exerted.
 The pressure of the fluid at the
base of the column is called
hydrostatic pressure
Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

F F  mg
P
A
m  Ah
F Ahg
P   gh
A A
m = mass of fluid
 = density of the fluid
h = height of fluid in the column
g = acceleration of gravity
A = cross-sectional area of the column
Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

 If the container is open to the

atmosphere, the total pressure is the
sum of the atmospheric pressure and
the hydrostatic pressure

P  Po  gh
Po = pressure above the fluid
= atmospheric pressure
Measurement of Pressure

 Manometers
U-tube manometer
Measurement of Pressure

 Manometers
 Open-end- measure a relative (gauge) pressure
 Reference is the pressure of the atmosphere
 Closed end – measurement against a complete
vacuum (no pressure)
Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
Pressure
Mass and Volume
 Density
 mass/unit volume
 g/cm3
 Specific Volume
 volume/ unit mass
 cm3/g
 Specific Gravity
 Dimensionless
Specific Gravity
 Ratio of the density of a substance to a
reference substance at a specific condition
 SG=ref
 The reference is often the density of water at
4oC (1.000 g/cm3)
 What does this mean? 20 0
SG  0.6 0
4

The density of the substance, measured at 20oC, is

only 60% of the density of water, measured at 4oC
Specific Gravity
 Measuring specific gravity of liquids
Specific Gravity
 Measuring specific gravity of liquids
pycnometer
Specific Gravity
Scales used for Specific Gravity
 For measurement of concentration of caustic lye, sulfuric acid strength, hydrochloric acid strength, etc.

1. o Twadell ( o Tw)  200 SG288.7 / 288.7  1.00

2. a. For liquids heavier than water
 145 
o
Baume ( Be)  145  
o

 SG288.7 / 288.7 
b. For liquids lighter than water
 140 
o
Baume ( Be)  
o
  130
 SG288.7 / 288.7 
Specific Gravity
Scales used for Specific Gravity

3. For Petroleum Products, Ameraican Petroleum

Institute (API) develped the following :
 141.5 
o
API     131.5
 SG288.7 / 288.7 

4. For the sugar industry

 400 
o
Brix     400
 SG288.7 / 288.7 
1o Brix  1%(mass)
Exercises on Specific Gravity
1. For ethanol, sp. gr. 60oF = 0.79389. What is the
density of ethanol at 60oF?
2. The specific gravity of steel is 7.9. What is the volume
in cubic feet of a steel ingot weighing 4000 lb?
3. The specific gravity of a solution is 0.8 at 70oF. How
many cubic feet will be occupied by 100 lb of the
solution at 70oF?
4. A solution in water contains 1.704 kg of HNO 3/kg H2O
and the solution has a specific gravity of 1.382 at
20oC. What is the mass of HNO3 in kg per cubic meter
of solution at 20oC?
Flow Rate
 Flow rate – rate at which a material is transported
through a pipe.
 Mass flow rate – mass transported through a line per
unit time
 Volumetric flow rate - volume transported through a
line per unit time
 Molar flow – number of moles of a substance
transported through a line per unit time
INTRODUCTION TO CHE
CALCULATIONS

Process Classification
Systems
 System – any arbitrary portion of a whole process
that you want to consider for analysis
 Closed system – no mass exchange with the
surroundings
 Open system – material crosses the system boundary
Chemical Processes
 Batch process
 Feed is charged into a vessel at the beginning
of the process and the vessel contents are
removed sometime in the future.
 No mass crosses the system boundaries
between the time the feed is charged and the
time the product is removed.
Chemical Processes
 Continuous process
 The inputs and outputs flow continuously
throughout the duration of the process.
 Semi-batch process
 A portion of the total feed is charged initially
into the vessel and the remaining portions are
gradually added.
 Nothing is withdrawn during the process.
Chemical Processes
 Steady State process
 All the variables (temperature, pressure,
volume, flow rate) do not change with time,
except for minor fluctuations around constant
mean values.
 Transient or unsteady state process
 Process variables changes with time.
Chemical Process Conditions
 Isothermal – constant temperature
 Isobaric – constant pressure
 Isometric or Isochoric – constant volume
 Adiabatic – no heat transfer
 Isentropic – adiabatic and reversible