TOFD L2

Basic Principle
The diffraction phenomenon
Incident
wave Diffracted
wave

Reflected CRACK
wave

Diffracted
wave
The diffraction phenomenon
Incident
wave Diffracted
wave

All directions
Reflected CRACK
wave Low energy

Dependent of
Diffracted incidence angle
wave
The diffraction phenomenon:
summary
 Incident wave  reflected wave

 Incident wave  diffracted waves emitted by defect

boundaries

 Cylindrical/spherical waves emitted in all directions

 Amplitude typically 10 to 20 dB below specular (direct)

reflection
Principles of TOFD

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Upper tip

Lower tip

Back-wall reflection
Principles of TOFD : A-scan signals

Lateral wave
Transmitter Receiver

Back-wall reflection

LW BW

Upper tip Lower tip

 Principles of TOFD : phase difference

Lateral wave

Back-wall reflection

+
LW + BW

- -

Upper tip Lower tip

Non-rectified A-scan presentation is needed to show the phase changes
 Principles of TOFD : Flaw depth measurement

 Based upon:
 Accurate flight-time measurements
 Simple trigonometric equations

 Achieved by TomoView software

 Principles of TOFD: Flaw depth measurement

S S
Transmitter Receiver

t0 t0

Initial pulse
LW BW

t
 Principles of TOFD: Flaw height measurement

2S
Transmitter Receiver

d1
d2

h  d 2  d1
Since only flight-time measurements are used to calculate the height,
very accurate height sizing is possible.
 In practice, 1 mm accuracy on real cracks is achievable
(0.1 mm on artificial reflectors)
Principles of TOFD: Flaw characterization

 In most cases, no correlation between amplitude and

importance of flaw

 Typical signature for each flaw type

 Interpretation of phase variations

 (Partial) loss and/or variation of LW, BW : indication for

surface-breaking cracks
 Near-surface breaking crack

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave is blocked

Back-wall reflection

BW

No lateral wave Crack tip

 Far-surface breaking crack

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Back-wall echo blocked

LW

No back-wall echo
Tip
 Horizontal planar defect
(lack of inter-run fusion, lamination)

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Reflected signal

Back-wall reflection

LW BW

Reflected signal
Practical implementation: Probe
selection
 Propagation mode
 Probe angle
 Time domain resolution
 Beam characteristics
 Synthesis table
Propagation mode
Longitudinal waves :
 Fastest waves, easy interpretation, no confusion with mode
converted waves (SW)

 Relation between signal phase and signal origin (tip, bottom)

 Stronger diffracted signals

Probe angle
 Relation between probe angle and amplitude of generated
diffracted signals

 Precision on flaw height measurement

 Inspected volume coverage

 Compromise
In many cases 60 degrees is a good compromise
Time domain resolution
 Measurements based on flight-time

 Requirement for short ultrasonic pulses (importance of UT

equipment : probe excitation parameters)

 Higher frequencies than standard UT (pulse-echo)

examinations
Beam characteristics
 Wide beam to cover volume to be inspected

 High frequency  small probe aperture  lower sensitivity

Aperture

Beam Beam

 Compromise
TOFD L2
Practical Implementation
Data processing and visualization
Amplitude
White
+

Time
- Black

Time

One A-scan picture is replaced by one gray-coded line

Data processing and visualization
A-scan
LW

B-scan BW

Near-surface Back-wall
Data processing and visualization
Data processing and visualization

 Flaw depth is expressed by a complex mathematical equation

 Basic tools are needed for

 Initial calibration
 Performing depth and height measurements
 Calibration
PCS
t0 A-scan
t0

T
c LW BW

PCS, thickness, sound velocity,

probe delay, lateral wave or
back-wall flight-time

Not all parameters have to be

known
B-scan
 Measurement tools
A-scan
d1
d1
h
t1 t2

Cursors
Build-in calculator
l

t1,t2  d1, d2 and h are P

automatically calculated

D-scan
Manipulator

Position encoder Very simple to use

Weld Magnetic wheels

Manual (or motorized)

One axis position encoding

Basically 2 probes, must be

UT probes able to hold more (PE)
Magnetic wheels
Easy and precise
adjustment of probe
separation is needed
Scanning types

 Non-parallel, along defect axis

 Parallel, across defect axis

Scanning types : Non-parallel scan

Most
frequently
Weld used for
Non-parallel weld
scan inspection

Perpendicular
to probe beam Detection
direction
Initial sizing

High speed
inspection
Scanning types : Non-parallel scan

Limitations :

 Defect depth measurement only accurate when probes are

symmetrically positioned with regard to defect

 Uncertainty on lateral position of defect results in height sizing

error
Influence of defect position uncertainty
S S
Transmitter Receiver

t0 t0

x
Parallel scan

Weld

Parallel scan

Parallel Accurate
to probe sizing and
beam positioning
direction
Parallel scan

Flight-time will
be minimal
when probes
are positioned
symmetrically
over defect

Lateral
wave Near surface

Back-wall
B-scan
This type of scan yields a typical inverted parabola
Parallel scan : limitations

 Weld inspection: weld cap often reduces or makes impossible the

extent of the scan.
Practical implementation : summary

 Simple, light weight set-up

 High speed inspection
 L-waves, wide beam, high frequency probes
 Data visualization and analysis tools
 Two scan types : non-parallel, parallel
TOFD L2
Codes and Standards
Codes and standards

 British Standard

 European Norm

 American Standard
British Standard

 Guide to calibration and setting-up of TOFD technique, BS 7706

(1993)
 Detailed document with useful practical guidelines for setting up
TOFD examination
 Guide for interpretation of TOFD data
 Examples of typical weld defects
CEN

 TOFD technique as a method for defect detection and sizing, CENV

583-6 (1997)
 Preliminary standard
 Recommended probe parameters with regard to different wall
thicknesses (frequency, crystal size, nominal angle)
 Advantages & limitations of TOFD technique

Advantages (+) : Limitations (-) :

 rapid, flexible  “dead zones”
 reliable detection of both  masking of flaws
volumetric and planar flaws
 influence of lateral defect
 amplitude insensitive position uncertainty
 accurate height sizing of flaws  some cases require
(± 1 mm) complementary pulse-echo
 independent of weld UT
configuration  strongly attenuating
 on-line interpretation, materials ?
permanent record
Is there any solution?

TOFD : YES

BUT : let’s also benefit from the advantages offered by the

standard Pulse-echo (PE) technique

SOLUTION: perform TOFD and PE simultaneously,

without reducing inspection speed
PE 45 SW TOFD PE 60 SW

The system allows for simultaneous

acquisition and analysis of TOFD and PE
TOFD L2
Interpretation
 1

The crack blocks the Lateral Wave and the lower tip
appears on the A-scan
 1
2

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

 1

2
3

Note the inverted phase between LW and defect

 1
2
3

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

 2 1

Porosity may image in many forms whether

individual or cluster
 1
2

In the LW we can observe the wide beam effect

on the crack
 1

2
2
3
3

Distortion of back-wall echo

 1
2

LOF - Underpass