WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO WATER TREATMENT

Water is used in Industry as a heat transfer medium, a solvent and in the
production of steam. In each case it is essential that the water is as pure as
possible.
The following table shows the analysis of drinking water:
TABLE (1). Drinking Water Standards
Max. figures permissible undesirable
Colour 5 UNIT 50 UNIT
Turbidity 5 JTU 25 JTU
pH 7.0 – 8.5 Under 6.5 and over 9.2
Total residue, dried 500 mg/l 1500 mg/l
Calcium (as Ca) 75 mg/l 200 mg/l
Magnesium (as Mg) 50 mg/l 150 mg/l
Iron (as Fe) 0.3 mg/l 1.0 mg/l
Manganese (as Mn) 0.1 mg/l 0.5 mg/l
Zinc (as Zn) 5.0 mg/l 15 mg/l
Copper (as Cu) 1.0 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Lead (as Pb) 0.1 mg/l
Aluminium (as Al)
Silver (as Ag)
Chromium, hexavalent(Cr) 0.05 mg/l
Selenium (as Se) 0.05 mg/l
Arsenic (as As) 0.2 mg/l
Cyanides (as CN) 0.01 mg/l
Sources of Water
Water used on a process plant can come from a number of
sources. The more important of these are:
1. Surface water, i.e. rivers, lakes, and artificial reservoirs.
2. Ground water, i.e. water held underground in areas of sand
or porous rock.
3. Sea water.

When a solid is contacted by water we may simply imagine that

there are only two possible outcomes.
• The solid dissolves in the water to give a solution, e.g. sugar

dissolves in water to give sugar solution. The solid in this case

is called the solute and the water is known as the solvent.

Water is a very good solvent.
• The solid remains unaffected by the water, e.g. sand does not
dissolve in water but if mixed with it, produces a suspension of
sand in water.
• The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a fixed quantity of
solvent at a fixed temperature is known as the solubility of the material.
Thus the solubility of the material will increased with increased temperature
• Eventually no more solute will dissolve and the added solute remains as
solid. We have reached the limit of dissolving the solute in the solvent. The
solution is then called a saturated solution. However, if we begin to heat
this solution and stir, we find that the solute dissolves and in fact we could
now add more solute which would also dissolve. The effect of raising the
temperature of the solution has meant that we can dissolve more solute.
• Some materials, the amount dissolved is so small that we cannot really
measure it and we say the material is insoluble. Some dissolve only a small
measurable amount (sparingly soluble) whilst others dissolve very large
amounts (very soluble)
• However, with some solid solutes, raising the temperature causes material
already dissolved to come out of solution. This is known as inverted
solubility.
• When some solid solutes dissolve in water, the solute can split up into
charges particles called ions. A typical example of one such material is
common salt (NaCl). When added to water, this breaks up into equal
numbers of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-). However, calcium
chloride (CaCl2) splits into calcium ions (Ca2+) and twice as many chloride
ions (Cl-) in order to keep the solution electrically neutral. .
IMPURITIES IN WATER
1. Surface Water
• Rain water, as it falls through the air, will dissolve some of the gasses
present in the air mainly oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2), but in industrial areas there could be sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other
pollutant gases discharged by the industries. Once the rain reaches the
ground it will dissolve some of the soluble material in the ground as well as
carrying with it loose insoluble solid materials as it flows on its way to rivers
etc.
• If it flows over moorland it often picks up weak organic acids. If it flows over
rocks which contain calcium (Ca), and Magnesium (Mg) or Iron (Fe)
compounds, then small percentages of these will dissolve in the water.
Contamination by industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents can also
occur.
• Even "bad” water, in industrial terms, contains less than 0.05% of dissolved
impurities. However, it is not this small quantity on its own but the
cumulative effect of using many millions of gallons of such water, over many
months, which may produce problems.
• It is normal practice to express these impurities as parts of material per
million parts of solvent (water) or simply parts per million, abbreviated to
ppm. Below are some of the more common impurities found in surface
waters and the problems they create.
i - Dissolved gases: are always present and, if not removed or reduced, may
cause excessive corrosion.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) up to 90 ppm
Oxygen (O2) up to 90 ppm
And often in industrial areas:
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) up to 4 ppm
Ammonia (NH3) up to 1 ppm
ii - Suspended solids: are sometimes present, depending on the nature of the
terrain over which water collects, and are in the form of fine sand, clays or
silt and perhaps decaying plant life. This type of impurity needs to be
removed by passing the water through a suitable filter in order to prevent
blocked pipes and to make the water look clean.
iii - Dissolved organic substances: are sometimes present and are often in
the form of peaty acids. These make the water look unpleasant and cause
corrosion.
iv - Living organisms: are always present (to greater or lesser extent) and are
usually in the form of water bacteria, soil bacteria or algae. It is important
that these be destroyed (by sterilization) particularly for drinking (potable)
water.
V - Dissolved salts: are nearly always present. Their nature depends upon the
areas through which the water flows. The main impurities in this section are
sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) salts. As we shall
see later it is mainly the calcium and magnesium salts which are harmful as
they create scale. A “good” water may contain only 100 ppm, a “bad” water
as many as 500 ppm.
2. Ground Water
This type of water is obtained from underground wells. It is
generally colourless and free from suspended material because
the ground filters out the suspended solids. However, ground
waters tend to contain fairly high concentrations of dissolved salts
since they are in contact with them for longer periods.
3. Sea Water
Sea water contains very high concentrations of dissolved salts, for
example sodium chloride and magnesium chloride.
Sea Water, then, can contain many different types of impurity
depending upon its source.
USES OF WATER
Water in industry is used for a number of purposes, the most important of which
are:
• Steam raising.
• Passing through the tubes of coolers, condensers and other cooling
systems.
• As a solvent for chemicals.
• Domestic reasons (drinking and washing).
It is desirable that water needed for the above uses is made free from:

• Suspended solids – by sedimentation (allowing them to settle) and filtration

of the water.
• Living organisms, e.g. bacteria, algae – by sterilization using mainly
chlorine.

For this reason, water of this quality is produced by the water authorities and
distributed to both domestic and industrial premises. It is often known as mains
water or potable water.
If the water is to be used for heating/cooling duties and/or steam raising it
requires two other forms of treatment to make it suitable, these are:
1. Removal of Dissolved Gases.
The dissolved gases should be removed as some of them make the water
corrosive (mainly oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)). A number of methods
are available for the removal of dissolved gases and we will look at two of
these.
i - De-aeration Techniques
This method is to spray the water down
a tower fitted with baffles and a heater.
The baffles break up the water into a fine
spray and the heater “boils out” the dissolved
gases. De-aerated water collects at the
base of the column and the carbon dioxide
(CO2)and oxygen (O2) escape from the top
of the tower. Often this is operated under
vacuum to reduce the pressure, decreasing
the solubility of the gases and also to suck the
gases out of the deaerator to stop them being
re-dissolved.
ii - Chemical Treatment
A compound called Sodium Sulphite (Na2SO3) is added to the water. The
oxygen in the water combines with this compound to form Sodium Sulphate
(Na2SO4) thus removing the free oxygen from the water. The chemical
equation which represents this process is as follows:
2Na2SO3 + O2 ------> 2 Na2SO4
Sodium sulphite Free oxygen Sodium sulphate
in water
This treatment does not, of course remove the carbon dioxide (CO2) but it is
probable that oxygen is the more harmful of the two gases where corrosion is
concerned.
2. Removal of Dissolved Salts.
Two of the main constituents of the ground are calcium carbonate (limestone –
CaCO3) and a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
(dolomite - CaCO3/ MgCO3) both of which are insoluble in pure water .
However, when rain water, which contains dissolved carbon dioxide contacts
limestone, a slow reaction occurs which produces calcium hydrogen carbonate,
more commonly known as calcium bicarbonate. This is shown in the chemical
equation which follows:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 ---------> Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium water carbon calcium hydrogen
Carbonate dioxide carbonate
(A similar reaction occurs with magnesium carbonate)
Also present in the ground are other calcium and magnesium salts (sulphates,
chlorides and nitrates) which are soluble in water (calcium sulphate is only very
slightly soluble), as well as salts of sodium and iron.
Water containing calcium and magnesium ions is called HARD WATER and
after the removal of these ions is termed SOFT WATER.
Domestically these calcium and magnesium ions do give the water some
advantages:
• They make it taste nice to drink (pure water is tasteless).
• The calcium is good for teeth and bones.
However, the major problems they create in industry occur when the water is
heated, e.g. the production of steam. The problems created are:
• When heated the hydrogen carbonates breakdown to form insoluble calcium
carbonate which sticks to the heating surface and produces a hard adherent
layer (fur in kettles and scale in pipes and boilers). This means that the heat
now has to pass through a layer of solid calcium carbonate (which acts as
an insulator) causing a lower heat flow. Heat can build up underneath the
scale and can lead to overheating and burnout of the heating element. Scale
can also block pipes. This type of hardness, due to the presence of calcium
and magnesium hydrogen carbonates is called temporary hardness as
boiling removes the chemicals concerned.
• Calcium sulphate has inverted solubility, i.e. as the temperature increases
its solubility decreases. Thus, heating the water can cause some of the
calcium sulphate to crystallize from the water and thus too forms a hard
adherent scale.
• Other magnesium and calcium salts in the water can be trapped in the
scale layer as it forms but most will remain unchanged during the heating of
the solution. Therefore calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and
nitrates give what is known as permanent hardness.

For these reasons the calcium and magnesium ions need to be removed from
the water before it is heated. There are three main ways of achieving this.
1. The Lime – Soda Process
This is carried out in two stages:
i - Addition of the lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2).
This converts the hydrogen carbonates of calcium and magnesium, i.e. the temporary
hardness salts in the water, to carbonates which are precipitated and can be filtered
off using standard filtration techniques.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 ------> 2CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O
Calcium Hydrogen + lime Calcium + water
Carbonate Carbonate
(Temporary Hardness salt) (filter off)

ii - The addition of sodium carbonate (Soda, Na2CO3)

This removes the permanent hardness by precipitating the calcium ions (Ca2+) and
the magnesium ions (Mg2+) as insoluble carbonates. These can then be removed by
standard filtration techniques. The sodium salts left in the water present no scaling
problems.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ------> Na2SO4 + CaCO3↓
Calcium + Soda sodium Calcium
Sulphate sulphate Carbonate
(Permanent Hardness salt) (harmless) (filter off)

A similar chemical reaction occurs with magnesium compounds. In both stages the
amount of chemicals added is carefully calculated.
A simplified diagram of the lime-soda process is shown in Figure 2
Fig. 2
2. Removal of Hardness by Ion Exchange Resins.
The principle upon which this method is based is that some materials [ion exchange
resins], insoluble in water, are capable of removing certain ions from solution whilst at
the same time liberating an equivalent number of different ions. Compounds called
zeolites have these properties. Zeolites are naturally occurring, very complex
compounds of Sodium, Aluminum, Silicon and oxygen. When water, containing calcium
or magnesium ions [Ca2+ or Mg2+], is passed through a bed of this material, the zeolite
picks up the harmful calcium and magnesium ions [Ca 2+, Mg2+) and replaces them with
an equivalent quantity of harmless sodium ions [Na +]. If we represent the zeolite by the
formula Na2Z [indicating a sodium zeolite compound] then the following chemical
equation represents the reaction that takes place.

CaSO4 + Na2Z -------> CaZ + Na 2SO4

water zeolite zeolite with harmless
hardness calcium ions sodium sulphate
salt in treated water
Chemists often show this reaction as an ionic equation, thus:

Ca2+ + Na2Z -----> CaZ + 2Na +

indicating that calcium ions [Ca2+] have been taken out of solution and replaced by
sodium ions [Na+] which have passed into solution. This process is shown in Figure 3
and is often called water softening by ion exchange.
 HARD WATER Water treatment plant containing TREATED WATER
Sodium Zeolite (softened)
containing containing
Ca2+ and Mg2+ (Ca2+ and Mg2+ harmless Na+
remain on zeolite

Figure 3
After a time the zeolite becomes 'exhausted', i.e. all its sodium ions [Na+] are used up. At
this point it must be 'regenerated'. This is easily achieved by passing a concentrated
solution of sodium chloride [NaCl] through the zeolite bed. This 'strong' solution forces
the calcium and magnesium ions off the zeolite and back into the water, replacing them
by sodium. The calcium/magnesium solution is then disposed of. After treatment with
zeolite, the water will contain sodium ions and the sulphate /chloride ions that were
chemically paired with the calcium and magnesium ions in the original hard water. Thus
the treated water will contain sodium salts. These are harmless in that they do not form
the hard adherent scales on the heating surfaces of process equipment, like compounds
of calcium and magnesium.
3. Deionization.
The purification of water by ion exchange can be taken a stage further by using synthetic
zeolites [insoluble synthetic resins], similar in their action to natural zeolites except that
they remove all the ions of all the compounds present in the original hard water. Typical
resins are based on polystyrene and phenol formaldehyde. One type of resin will remove
all the positive metal ions [e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+] and replace them with H+ ions, whilst
another type will remove the non‑metal ions [e.g. SO42- and Cl‑] and replace their with
OH‑ ions. Treatment with both types will produce a water with no ions in it at all
[H+ +OH‑ ----> H2O].
Resins which remove metal ions [Ca2+, Mg2+] are called cation exchange resins and
resins which remove the remaining ions are called anion exchange resins.
The process is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4

BOILER FEED WATER

It might be thought that water, after treatment by the methods outlined in the previous
section, would present no further scaling or corrosion problems. However, this is not the
case. Unfortunately very small amounts of hardness salts and dissolved gases can still
remain in the water. As modern boilers have high rates of evaporation and operate
under extremes of temperature and pressure, boiler feed water needs extra treatment to
avoid problems from these trace impurities.
The main treatments used are;
i) Treatment with Phosphates
By adding sodium phosphate [or a similar phosphate compound] to the boiler
feed water, the traces of soluble calcium hardness salts in the boiler feed
water are converted to insoluble calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate
is precipitated out as a light fluffy sludge which does not stick to surfaces
and is easily removed from the boiler system by occasionally draining part of
the water from the boiler ‑ a process known as blow down.
ii) Treatment with Oxygen Scavengers
Special chemicals, which are harmless to the process but capable of
preventing corrosion due to the presence of oxygen, are often added to the
purified water before it is fed to the boiler. One type actually removes the
oxygen [e.g. sodium sulphite, hydrazine] and the other forms a protective
film over the boiler tubes [e.g. tannin].
iii) Treatment with Sodium Hydroxide
The water in a boiler needs to be kept slightly alkaline [above pH = 7] to
prevent corrosion. The build up of any dissolved carbon dioxide or other
acidic gases [e.g. sulphur dioxide] would make the water acidic. Small
amounts of the alkali caustic soda [sodium hydroxide] are added to ensure
that this does not occur. This must be monitored carefully since boiler feed
water that is too alkaline can cause the tubes to become brittle and easily
damaged by vibration.
POTABLE WATER
Domestic water should be colorless, odorless, free from harmful bacteria and
suspended matter, and have an acceptable taste. Germs and spores as well as
chemical and physical substances which can be lead to health problems. Water from
the distribution network of a drinking water supply plant must not contain any bacteria
originating from sewage. The presence of coli form bacteria must be taken as a
warning sign of sewage contamination, and must give rise to immediate precautions
because of the danger from infection from a contagious disease such as typhus and
so on.
The maximum limiting concentration of toxic chemical substance are:
Lead (0.1 mg/l), Arsenic (0.2 mg/l), Selenium (0.05 mg/l), Chromium (0.05 mg/l),
Cyanide (0.01 mg/l) and Fluorine (1.5 mg/l).
In some waterworks, fluorine compounds up to a concentration of (0.8 to 1.0 mg/l)
are added to protect the teeth from decay.
Dangerous substances are radioactive materials. It is important that these should be
kept as low as possible in drinking water.
Sterilization of Drinking Water
The most important consideration in providing domestic water is the assurance of its
freedom from harmful bacteria. Chlorine is used universally for sterilizing drinking
water. Concentrations of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm are effective, concentrations of more than
0.4 ppm impart a taste to the water. Chlorine reacts with the water to produce
hypochlorous acid, strong oxidizing agent.
CL2 + HOH = HOCl + H + + Cl-
The same agent is obtained from chloride of lime, bleaching powder, or sodium
hypochlorite. Each of these can be used for sterilizing drinking water.
Chlorination
• Chlorine is the most economical and widely used agent for
controlling fouling organisms, both in salt water as well as in
fresh water cooling systems. It is used successfully in many
plants throughout the world.
• The target of chlorination should be at prevention since there is
a difference between prevention and combating of fouling
organisms.
• The destruction and removal by chlorine of fouling organisms
already settled in the circulating system demands not only
lengthy periods of treatment and the use of high concentration
of chlorine, but brings with it the problem of the disposal of
accumulated quantities of shells and debris which in some
circumstances can amount to tons.
• Chlorination as a means of prevention is thus an absolutely
effective method. This holds not only as its application for a
permanent measure but likewise for its periodic use at suitable
intervals, the latter being still more economical.
• Because the chlorine content of liquefied gaseous chlorine is
99.8% C12, for greatest economy the liquid form is used
wherever feasible.
A number of reactions can occur when chlorine is added to natural waters.
Some of the more prominent chlorine applications are:
1. Disinfection.
2. Removal of ammonia and other nitrogen organics.
3. Control of taste and odour.
4. Hydrogen sulfide oxidation.
5. Iron and manganese oxidation.
6. Destruction of organic matter.
7. Colour reduction.
8. Control of slime and algae.
9. Control of iron, manganese and sulfate reducing bacteria.
In chemically pure water, elemental chlorine reacts with the water
And hydrolyzes to hypochlorous acid (HOCL) and hydrochloric acid (HCL).
Cl2 + H2O = HOC1 + HCl
Chlorine + water = hypochlorous acid + hydrochloric

acid
HOCl = H+ + OCl -

hypochlorous acid = hydrogen ion + hypochlorite ion

DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES
Removal of salt and dissolved solids from
water(desalination)
The water which contains common salt or sodium chloride
dissolved in it, has a peculiar salty or brackish taste, and
therefore, it is named as salt water or brackish water. Since the
salt waters have a brackish taste, they cannot be used for
drinking, unless the salt content is removed or reduced. The
process of removing this salt from water is known as
desalination, and the resultant water which is free from salt is
known as fresh water.
Classification of salty water.
Although desalination strictly means removal of salt, yet since
common salt (NaCl) cannot be removed in isolation, this term is
practically used to describe process, which is used for the
reduction of total dissolved solids (TDS) in water, which is
measured in mg/l. Sometimes, conductivity is measured and
used as a measurement of total dissolved solids, as it can be
easily measured in the field with a conductivity meter. The S.I.
unit for conductivity is milli Siemens per m. For most purposes,
the TDS value of water can be obtained by multiplying the
conductivity value by 0.66, except for certain special cases, e.g.
mine waters.
In broad terms, natural waters can be classified according to their TDS
values, as follows:
Table 2.1. Classification of Salty Waters

S. No. Type of water TDS value in mg /l

1. Sweet waters 0-1000
2. Brackish waters 1000-5000
Moderately saline
3. 5000-10,000
waters
Severely saline
4. 10,000-30,000
waters
5. Sea water Above 30,000
Occurrence of salty water.
• Sea water is the most evident example of salt water. One can
taste this water while sailing on a sea and one will immediately
reject it saying that the water is highly salty. Sea water
averages 3.5 per cent salt. Land-locked lakes are found to be
more salty than the oceans. This is because they are shallower
than the oceans. For the same surface area, the evaporation of
water will be more for a shallow lake than for a deep ocean;
and, therefore, the salt concentration of a lake will be more than
that of an ocean. Such confined bodies of water are termed as
salt-lakes. Utah City of USA is about seven times more salty
than the oceans, as it contains about 23% salt.
• The sea and great salt lakes are not the only places where we
can find salt water. Salt water can also be found in rivers that
pass over salt beds and rocks, containing large amounts of
salts.
 Need for Utilization of Brackish Waters
• Salt water is not useable because of its high salt content. We may need
water for drinking, for irrigation, for industrial utilization, etc. Depending upon
the need, the salt content of the water must be removed or reduced. A very
pertinent question that one can ask will be as to why do we want to use salt
water or sea water, when fresh water is available in rivers and streams? The
answer is two fold. One point is that fresh water may not be available in
sufficient quantity, and the second point is, that the fresh water may not be
available at the required place, and importing fresh water may either prove
to be costly or may not be feasible due to political or other considerations.
• With the development of civilization, our water demand is going on
increasing, while the supply remains almost the same. Therefore, it
becomes evident that the available fresh water will become scarce in future,
even if sufficient water is available today.
• There are various places in the world where water is in great scarcity even
today. Hong Kong, for example, faces acute shortage of fresh water, and
one has to pay 10 cents for a glass of drinking water.
• If this sea water can be converted into fresh water at a cheap rate, the major
problem of Hong Kong can be solved.
• Hong Kong is not the only country facing water shortage. At least sixty of the
under-developed countries, are now facing, or will soon face water problems
that cannot be solved by using naturally available fresh water.
• In India, shortage of fresh water is creating serious problems in certain
thickly populated areas; shortage of water appears to be a major obstacle in
settlement and development.
 Cost Aspects of Desalination.
• Desalination is a costly process. The water obtained by desalination proves
much costlier than the naturally available-treated water. Some years ago,
the cost of desalination was too high to be feasible. The cost has been
reduced considerably during the past few years, but it is still very much
higher than the cost of treating natural water for public use. With modern
equipments, the cost of producing fresh water from sea water has been
reduced to about seven times, but still it is about three to ten times costlier
than the cost of treating natural water. What a tremendous price gap to
close?
• At present, desalting is not used for irrigation, because the cost of
conversion is too high to make it practical to produce very large amounts.
The greatest cost factor in producing desalted water is the fuel needed to
run the huge stills. The expenses of building, equipping and maintaining
plants, and labour charges are also considerable. All those expenses have
to be counted while evaluating the cost of each liter of water. Intensive
research is being conducted on desalination, in order to reduce its cost.
• Even in spite of its high cost, desalination has been used at various places.
Numerous commercial de-salting plants are functioning these days, around
the world. Many other privately owned smaller plants for industries are also
in existence. U.S.A. itself is having about 200 commercial plants. Some
islands too, do have their own desalting plants.
Economics of Desalination
• Desalination is not a problem of pure economics but is a problem off applied
economics. It is a socio-economic project, and the high cost and expenditure
involved on such a project, which may not be justified from purely
mathematical stand point, has to be sometimes borne in such a case. What
we mean to say is that, when such a project is needed for the survival of the
society, then it must be carried out even if it is costlier. The question of cost
has to be kept aside when there is a question of life and death.
• Up to now, man has been paying a low price for suitable water. But if the
water has to be obtained after desalination, it may prove to be costly. And
one may have to pay higher price for water in future, as the need for
exhausting sea water on a large scale arises. However, water is an
essential commodity without which man cannot survive, and one will have to
purchase it, at all costs, Desalination must be visualized in this light. In other
words, even if desalination is economically not defensible, it is a means of
survival, and hence has to be adopted.
Desalination Technologies

Sea water composition at the intake area where all, plants are being fed from,
showed the approximate analysis as the following:

pH 7.7
Ca 480 ppm
Mg 1465 ppm
Na 12150 ppm
HCO3 180 ppm
Cl 22000 ppm
SO4 3260 ppm

There is of course a difference in seawater temperature during summer and

winter seasons, due to solar radiation, therefore the upper water layers of the
sea vary in temperatures from those of the lower water layers.
 A desalination process essentially separates saline water into two parts -
one that has a low concentration of salt (treated water or product water),
and the other with a much higher concentration than the original feed
water, usually referred to as brine concentrate or simply as ‘Concentrate’.

Pure Water
Desalination
Technology
Feed Water
Salt Water

Energy

Fig 2.1 Desalination Process Diagram

• The two major types of technologies that are used around the world for
desalination can be broadly classified as either thermal or membrane. Both
technologies need energy to operate and produce fresh water. Within those
two broad types, there are sub-categories (processes) using different
techniques. The major desalination processes are identified in Table 2.1.
• Most early desalination processes were thermal distillation type processes,
which were common in the Middle East due to the availability of low cost
steam at power plants. By the 1970s commercial membrane processes were
available. These included electrodialysis (ED) and reverse osmosis (RO). ED
was determined to desalt brackish water more cost-effectively than thermal
distillation processes, which was a break through in the industry at that
time. Reverse osmosis processes were expensive to operate due to the high
energy requirement of these systems. However, there have been significant
improvements to membrane technologies in the past 10 years, which have
made reverse osmosis a more viable, cost-effective water supply alternative.
• The most common desalination technologies that have experienced
commercial success is shown in Table 2.1. These include thermal processes
such as multi-Stage flash, multi-effect distillation and vapor compression and
membrane processes such as electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.

Table 2.1 Desalination Technologies and processes

Thermal Technology Membrane Technology
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF) Electrodialysis (ED)
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD)
Solar Still Distillation
• Thermal and membrane capacity on a worldwide basis was about 7 billion
gallons per day (bgd) in early 2000, with about 50% in thermal processes
and 50% in membrane technologies. This is total installed capacity since
the early 1950s, and not all of that capacity may be in operation. On a
global basis, desalination capacity increased at almost 12 percent per
year, from 1972 through 1999. There have been over 8,600 desalination
plants installed worldwide.

THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES
• Thermal technologies, as the name implies, involve the heating of saline
water and collecting the condensed vapor (distillate) to produce pure
water. Thermal technologies have rarely been used for brackish water
desalination, because of the high costs involved. They have however been
used for seawater desalination and can be sub-divided into three groups:
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF), Multi-Effect Distillation (MED), and
Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD).
• More than 50% of the world’s desalination plants are thermal desalination
plants. In a thermal process, water is heated; creating a vapor that is
condensed to form fresh water. Thermal processes are traditionally high-
energy systems and have high operational costs, unless low-cost steam
energy is available. To keep energy requirements down, distillation
is usually accomplished by conducting boiling in multiple successive
vessels operating at a low temperature and low pressure.
• A common problem in thermal processes is the formation of a scale inside
the process piping. Hardening of minerals in the seawater, especially
calcium sulfate, forms a scale. Scale is difficult to remove and reduces the
efficiency of the process. Chemicals are often added to reduce scale
precipitation.
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)
• This process involves the use of distillation through several (multi-stage)
chambers. In the MSF process, each successive stage of the plant
operates at progressively lower pressures. The feed water is first heated
under high pressure, and is led into the first ‘flash chamber’, where the
pressure is released, causing the water to boil rapidly resulting in sudden
evaporation or ‘flashing’. This ‘flashing’ of a portion of the feed continues in
each successive stage, because the pressure at each stage is lower than in
the previous stage. The vapor generated by the flashing is converted into
fresh water by being condensed on heat exchanger tubing that run through
each stage. The tubes are cooled by the incoming cooler feed water.
Generally, only a small percentage of the feed water is converted into vapor
and condensed.
• MSF plants are subject to corrosion unless stainless steel is used
extensively. In addition to corrosion, MSF plants are also subject to erosion
and impingement attack. Erosion is caused by the turbulence of the feed
water in the flash chamber, when the feed water passes from one stage to
another.
Operating the plant at temperatures higher than 110 oC can increase the
system’s efficiency, but also increases the formation of scale and potential
corrosion.
• Distillation processes produce about 3.4 billion gpd globally, which is about
50 percent of the worldwide desalination capacity. MSF plants provide about
84 percent of that capacity. Most of those plants have been built in the
Middle East, where energy resources have been plentiful and inexpensive.
Fig 2.2 Multi-stage Evaporator
• Water can be boiled at low temperatures, by reducing the pressure. Thus,
hot brine can be vaporized to a certain extent at a certain pressure, colder
brine left can then, also, be vaporized further at still lower pressures and so
on. This principle is used in 'multi-stage' evaporators, i.e. water is forced to
evaporate and condense again and again in various stages. These modern
evaporators throw away very little heat energy. They use it again and again
by `staging' the evaporator, until it is so low in temperature that it is too week
to be useful. These techniques have led to a 16-fold improvement in
efficiency.
• A multi-stage evaporator, producing fresh water from salt water, is sketched
in Fig. 2.2. In this evaporator, important use is made of condenser vacuum
by enabling the whole operation to go on at low temperatures and below or
near the atmospheric pressure. By dividing the process into stages, the
heated brine can evaporate some of its water, which is condensed into
another compartment. The colder brine goes to another compartment,
where pressure is still less, thus causing the evaporation of some of it, which
is also condensed and collected. The process is repeated until the vacuum
is as high as is practically feasible, and all possible evaporation has taken
place. Finally, when the brine becomes so strong and temperature and
pressure so low that it cannot be evaporated and the remaining heat cannot
be extracted, then it is thrown into the oceans. Only this little heat is wasted
in this method.
• An important advancement was made, when the ideas of `flash evaporation'
and 'multiple-flash evaporation' came into existence.
• Flash evaporation simply means the effect produced when hot salt water is
suddenly cooled under less pressure. In this way, water is vaporized
suddenly like a flash and the actual boiling point is never reached.
• One form of flash evaporation consists in spraying the hot brine under
pressure through a nozzle into a chamber which is at a lower pressure and
is cooler. The sudden change produces the flash action and the water will
evaporate immediately. The produced vapour is taken to a condenser to
form pure water. This happens in each stage in a `multi-flash stage
evaporator'.
• Multi-stage flash distillation plants have been built since the late 1950s.
Some MSF plants can contain from 15 to 25 stages. MSF distillation plants
can have either a ‘once-through’ or ‘recycled’ process. In the ‘once-through’
design, the feed water is passed through the heater and flash chambers just
once and disposed of, while in the recycled design, the feed water for
cooling is recycled. Each of these processes can be structured as a ‘long
tube’ or ‘cross tube’ design. In the long tube design tubing is parallel to the
concentrate flow, while in the cross tube design, tubing is perpendicular to
the concentrate flow.
• MSF plants are subject to corrosion unless stainless steel is used
extensively. MSF plants are also subject to erosion and impingement attack.
Erosion is caused by the turbulence of the feed water in the flash chamber,
when the feed water passes from one stage to another.
• Operating the plant at temperatures higher than 110 oC can increase the
system’s efficiency, but also increases the formation of scale and corrosion.
Fig 2.3 Multi-stage Flash Distillation plant
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
The MED process has been used since the late 1950s and early 1960s.
Multi-effect distillation occurs in a series of vessels (effects) and uses the
principles of evaporation and condensation at reduced ambient pressure.
In MED, a series of evaporator effects produce water at progressively
lower pressures. Water boils at lower temperatures as pressure
decreases, so the water vapor of the first vessel or effect serves as the
heating medium for the second, and so on. The more vessels or effects
there are, the higher the performance ratio. Depending upon the
arrangement of the heat exchanger tubing, MED units could be classified
as horizontal tube, vertical tube or vertically stacked tube bundles.

The process design uses large temperature differences to enhance the

heat transfer in the submerged tube evaporator. The thermal efficiency of
the process depends on the number of effects. Lower operating
temperatures reduce the potential for scale formation. Therefore, the
limited operating temperature range and the large temperature difference
required by the submerged tube evaporator process limits the number of
effects that can be used in multi-effect evaporators. Some
improvements to the efficiency of the MED process have led to an
increasing number of these systems commercially; however, the total
number of MED systems is much lower than MSF systems.
Vapor Compression Distillation
• Another distillation technology known as vapor compression (VC) is used for
smaller-scale desalination facilities. This process is based on the Carnot
refrigeration cycle, in which a mechanical compressor (rather than a heat
source) is used to compress the vapor from the evaporator to a higher
pressure. As the compressed vapor condenses on one side of the
tube heat transfer surface, seawater boils on the other side creating more
vapor. This process may uses electric energy instead of steam. The VC
evaporator is more efficient than the previously described steam driven
evaporators, but electric power is significantly more expensive than steam
energy.
• VC evaporators operate either at atmospheric pressure (102 oC) or under a
vacuum (60oC) depending on the design. The lower temperature
evaporators must be larger to accommodate the higher specific volume
of water vapor at lower temperatures. These low temperature units have
a reduced tendency to scale or corrode and require less heat recovery
between the feed seawater and the concentrate and distillate streams.
• VC units are commonly used at drilling sites and for some small industries
since they are more compact than other thermal processes and electric
power is readily available. The number of VC units currently in operation is
very small (4% worldwide) as compared to multi-stage flash systems, which
are estimated at 44% worldwide.
Solar still distillation
Uses the heat of the sun to heat salt water, and human labor to periodically
change the water. Solar radiation heats the salt water in a basin with a
clear cover, and water vapor condenses on the underside of the
cover. The condensate then drips into a pure water collection area.
Although numerous enhancements of solar stills have been proposed and
tested, most sources suggest a basic single-basin design as the most
economical and proven. In hot climates, single-basin stills generally
produce 2 to 3L/day (roughly 1m3/year) for each m2 of area. Although
labor requirements are high, the simple and independent operation of
solar stills suits them for small-scale, remote applications.

Fig 2.4 Solar Still Distillation

Materials of construction of thermal distillation plants
• The economical and efficient operation of these plants is largely dependent
on the materials chosen for construction. Structural strength and corrosion
resistance are two of the main selection criteria. Ultimately, materials used
in the desalination process should be suitable for the operating conditions
that exist; they will be exposed to a specific range of operating temperatures
and will come into contact with steam, aerated and deaerated seawater and
concentrated brine, and a number of chemicals including the acids and
polyphosphate additives used to reduce scaling. Aluminium-brass and
90/10 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys are used extensively.
• Copper-nickel alloys may be used to fabricate a wide variety of components
needed for the assembly of an MSF plant, including condenser tubing for
heat-exchange sections and tube plates. Copper-nickel or 90/10 clad steel
plates may be used to manufacture large water boxes and elbows. Clad
plates are used in fabricating chamber walls. Pumps and similar
components are usually cast from copper-nickel alloys.
• Tube materials vary depending on their location in the plant. Typically, in
the heat rejection section, 70/30 copper-nickel alloy containing 2 per cent
iron and 2 per cent manganese provides the best corrosion resistance;
standard 70/30 or 90/10 alloys constitute a viable alternative. In the heat
recovery section, 90/10 copper-nickel and aluminium-brass alloys have both
been used successfully. In the brine heater, where periodic descaling is
required, 90/10 and 70/30 copper-nickel alloys may be used.
 Material Use

Copper – nickel (Cu-Ni) 70/30 with a To construct tube at operating temperatures

wall thickness of (1 – 1.2 mm) above 80 oC

Cu – Ni 90/10 with a wall thickness of • To construct tubes in lower temperature

1 mm evaporators
• For cladding carbon steel in water boxes
• As partition walls and floors in
evaporators
Stainless steel (SS 316L) To manufacture partition walls, distillate
trays, and evaporator parts to be used at
temperatures below 80 oC to avoid pitting
and crevice corrosion

Carbon steel To construct steam and condensate piping

Cladding materials such as stainless To construct evaporator partition walls and

Cu-Ni 90/10,or polyurethane with floors, dearator shells, water boxes, and
carbon steel seawater, distillate and brine piping
(1) Metal construction materials

Conventional construction materials in thermal desalination plants include a

variety of both steel- and copper-based alloys. A list of the major alloys used in
these plants is presented in previous table.
The materials listed in the table have been used in desalination plants for a
number of years; all are relatively inexpensive and have proved highly effective
in withstanding the harsh seawater conditions.
Recent environmental concerns about the adverse effects of dissolved copper
ions in the discharged brine have led to a shift towards the use of construction
materials devoid of this metal. New trends in this area include the following:

(a) The use of titanium for constructing evaporator tubes operating at

temperatures below 80 oC. Under such conditions, titanium has high
corrosion resistance, and the tubes can be as thin as 0.5 mm;
(b) Aluminium-brass tubing for evaporators operating at temperatures below
80oC. These tubes have proved highly successful in single and multiple
effect distillation units.
In the MED process, the use of aluminium alloys is allowing better heat
transfer as well as lighter and cheaper constructions.
(2)Plastic construction materials

Incorporating new materials in the construction of desalination plants can solve

a number of corrosion problems. Care should naturally be taken to maintain, if
not improve, heat exchange economics. Finding substitutes for the copper and
copper alloys presently used is a top priority among operators. New materials
currently under consideration, in addition to aluminium and titanium,
include a number of plastics. Improvements on this front will allow the
production of thinner-walled components and tubes, resulting in more efficient
heat transfer and reduced construction and material costs.

One of the more important arguments made in favour of the wider use of
plastics is that the energy consumed in the production of a unit mass of plastics
is two times lower than that for metal alternatives such as stainless steel or
aluminium. This translates into overall environmental benefits. Other
advantages claimed for plastic substitutes in desalination plants include the
following:
(a) Reduced costs in comparison with conventional metallic
materials; estimates indicate considerable savings, with plastics priced

five times lower than carbon steel and twenty times lower than stainless

steel alternatives;
(b) Improved tolerance to chemical attack by acids, oxidizing agents and
numerous solvents, allowing operation at a higher TBT (around 120o C),
a reduction in specific heat transfer area, and the use of acid cleaning;
(c) Higher resistance to mechanical erosion, permitting higher fluid velocities

inside tubes.
(d) Lightweight designs effecting reduced transportation, construction and
installation costs;
(e) Simpler and less costly forming and machining methods that also
translate into reduced construction costs;
(f) More efficient condensation and collection of condensate owing to the
lower wettability of plastic surfaces.
 Some of the more frequently cited drawbacks associated with the substitution
of
metal-based brine heaters, preheaters and condensers with plastic equivalents
include the following:

(a) The lower thermal conductivity of plastics necessitates the use of

thin-walled tubes (100 microns) to provide comparable overall heat
transfer coefficients; this could lead to part failures;
(b) Plastic components tend to age faster than their metal-based
counterparts, particularly under high- temperature conditions;
(c) Field experience in the use of plastics in desalination plants is limited.
 Thermal Plant Performance Enhancements
The most important advancements in thermal desalination over the past 10
years have been increasing system efficiency and operational
reliability. The operational enhancements have included scale control
improvements, automation and controls, further operator training and better
materials of construction. Additionally, increases in standard-unit sizes have
increased the economies of scale for larger systems. But still these
systems have very high-energy requirements and can be cost prohibitive
unless low cost steam energy is available from a power plant.
Membrane Technologies
A membrane process is a physical separation process, where salt is
separated from seawater or brackish water to produce drinking water.
These membrane processes include electrodialysis (ED) and reverse
osmosis (RO). These process produce the same result, however, ED uses
voltage to separate the salts, where RO operates under pressure for the
separation process.
Membrane technologies can be subdivided into two broad categories:

- Electrodialyis (ED)
- Reverse Osmosis (RO).
Fig 2.5 Comparison between Electrodialysis and Reverse Osmosis
Electrodialysis (ED)

Electrodialysis (ED) is a voltage-driven membrane process. An electrical potential is

used to move salts through a membrane, leaving fresh water behind as product water.
ED was commercially introduced in the 1960s, about 10 years before reverse osmosis
(RO), although ED was originally conceived as a seawater desalination process, it has
generally been used for brackish water desalination.

ED depends on the following general principles:

- Most salts dissolved in water are ions, either positively charged (cations),
or negatively charged (anions).
- Since like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract, the ions
migrate toward the electrodes with an opposite electric charge
- Suitable membranes can be constructed to permit selective passage of
either anions or cations.

If an electric-current is passed through the salt-solution, the sodium and chlorine ions
get freed from water molecules, and they start moving towards their oppositely charged
electric poles. In other words, the + vely charged sodium ions will move towards the – ve
pole, i.e. cathode, and the – vely charged chlorine ions will move towards the + ve pole,
i.e. anode. If these cations (+ ve ions) and anions (- ve ions) are allowed to segregate in
Different compartments, what is left, is fresh-water.
Fig 2.6 Ion Transport in Electrodialysis
The segregation is achieved by means of thin plastic like sheets called
`membranes'. They are made of chemical substances called `ion exchange
resins' and they are very thin, say about 1/180 th of a cm. These thin
membranes can be economically made and have the ability to accept or reject
certain molecules in solution.

Fig 2.7 Cross-section of the Membranes

By choosing the right kind of resin, membranes could be made that would pass
either positive or negative ions but not both. Fortunately, it has been possible to
manufacture such membranes which conduct electricity enough, and have
reasonably long life
A simple sketch, using a single cell, on this principle, is shown in Fig Below

Fig 2.8 Principle of Electrodialysis showing one cell

Fig 2.9 Movement of ions in the Electrodialysis process
• Such individual cells consisting of a pair of cation and anion membranes
installed in parallel between a pair of electrodes is known as a cell.
• When a number of membrane pairs are installed parallel between a pair of
electrodes (with spacers between each membrane), what is formed is
known as a stack, as shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Principle of electrodialysis showing a stack.

 In a saline solution, dissolved ions such as sodium (+) and chloride (-) migrate
to the opposite electrodes passing through selected membranes that either
allow cations or anions to pass through (not both). Membranes are usually
arranged in an alternate pattern, with anion-selective membrane followed by a
cation - selective membrane. During this process, the salt content of the water
channel is diluted, while concentrated solutions are formed at the electrodes.
Concentrated and diluted solutions are created in the spaces between the
alternating membranes, and these spaces bound by two membranes are called
cells. ED units consist of several hundred cells bound together with electrodes,
and is referred to as a stack. Feed water passes through all the cells
simultaneously to provide a continuous flow of desalinated water and a steady
stream of concentrate (brine) from the stack.
Because of the inherent characteristics of the electrical process used in ED
units, they are normally used to desalinate brackish water, rather than high
salinity water such as seawater. An example of and ED system is shown below
(Fig 2.11)
Fig 2.11 Electrodialysis cell
• In the early 1970s, the Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR) process was
introduced. An EDR unit operates on the same general principle as an ED
unit, except that both the product and concentrate channels are identical in
construction. At intervals of several times an hour, the polarity of the
electrodes is reversed, causing ions to be attracted in the opposite direction
across the membranes. Immediately following reversal, the product water is
removed until the lines are flushed out and desired water quality restored.
The flush takes just a few minutes before resuming water production. The
reversal process is useful in breaking up and flushing out scales, slimes,
and other deposits in the cells before they build up. Flushing helps in
reducing the problem of membrane fouling.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF)
• In relation to thermal processes, Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a relatively new
process that was commercialized in the 1970s. Currently, RO is the most
widely used method for desalination. The RO process uses pressure as the
driving force to push saline water through a semi-permeable membrane into
a product water stream and a concentrated brine stream.
• Nanofiltration (NF) is also a membrane process that is used for removal of
divalent salt ions such as Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulphate. RO, on the
other hand, is used for removal of Sodium and Chloride. RO processes are
used for desalinating brackish water (TDS>1,500 mg/l), and seawater. The
process is explained below:
• In this method of desalination, the water molecules and the salt ions are
separated by forcing the salt solution against a 'semi-permeable membrane'
barrier, which permits the flow of water through itself but stops the salt, as
shown in Fig. 2.12 (b).
• We know from our knowledge of chemistry that in ordinary osmosis when
salt solution is separated from pure water by a semi-permeable membrane,
the pure water flows across the membrane until the pressure on the pure
water side become equal to the osmotic pressure of the salt solution, as
shown in Fig. 2.12(a) . But in reverse osmosis process, the natural osmotic
pressure is opposed by exerting an external pressure on the side containing
the salt solution. In other words, the osmotic pressure is reversed, and this
external high pressure working in opposition to nature's low osmotic
pressure, forces pure water from the salt solution to move across the
membrane towards the side containing water (Fig. 2.12 (b)).
 Fig 2.12(a) Osmosis

Fig 2.12(b) Principle sketch showing reverse osmosis

The osmotic pressure is proportional to the TDS of the water, and
a pressure of at least twice the osmotic pressure is required to achieve
An economically feasible flow. The semi-permeable membrane used in
this process is hence thin but dense and strong enough to withstand the
high external pressure. It is supported by a grid, and the salty water
circulates against one surface of it. This surface has a thick and a tough
skin, while the body of the membrane is softer and less dense.

Reverse osmosis does not work below 60,000 kN/m2 (600 kg/cm2) and
is usually operated at about 1, 00,000 kN/m2 (1000 kg/cm2).
• As a matter of fact, the semi-permeable membranes, like the ones found in
numerous numbers in human body, have been used for separating the
materials according to their physical and chemical properties, when a
pressure differential or electrical potential difference (as in electrodialysis) is
applied across the membrane. Pressure driven processes can be broadly
classified according to the membrane pore size and size of particles
removed, as shown in Fig. 2.13. These processes are:
(i) Micro filtration (MF)
(ii) Ultra filtration (UF)
(iii) Nano filtration (NF)
(iv) Reverse osmosis (RO)
• It can be observed from Fig. 2.13 that nano filtration as well as reverse
osmosis helps in filtration of dissolved salts. Hence nanofiltration is
considered to be a part of reverse osmosis, and is known as low-pressure
reverse osmosis. Both these processes i.e. NF and RO help in removal of
ions (dissolved salts) by osmosis, while MF and OR are micro porous
membranes which remove suspended small size particles by physical
separation. MF and OR are, therefore, low pressure processes, while NF
and RO are high pressure processes. In reverse osmosis, separation is by
diffusion through a dense membrane. Nano filtration follows the same
principle but utilizes a micro-pore Membrane. RO rejects particles of size as
small as 0.000 1 µm, whereas NF rejects particles of size greater than 0.001
gm (nano meter).
Fig 2.13 Various Types of pressure driven filtration processes
Reverse osmosis can be used for desalination with low pressure membranes
(as Nano filtration) of moderately salty waters (TDS of 1000 to 10000 mg/L) ;
and with high pressure membranes for severely saline waters containing TDS
above 10000 mg/L. Sufficiently good quality water containing TDS within 500
mg/L, can be obtained by this method.

RO desalination plant essentially consists of four major systems:

• Pre-treatment system
• High pressure pumps
• Membrane systems
• Post-treatment
Pre-treatment is very important in RO because the membrane surfaces must
remain clean. Therefore, all suspended solids must be first removed, and the
water pre-treated so that salt precipitation or microbial growth does not occur
on the membranes. Pre-treatment may involve conventional methods such as a
chemical feed followed by coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation, and sand
filtration, or pre-treatment may involve membrane processes such as
microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF). The choice of a particular pre
treatment process is based on a number of factors such as feed water quality
characteristics, space availability, RO membrane requirements, etc
• High pressure pumps supply the pressure needed to enable the water to
pass through the membrane and have the salt rejected. The pressures
range from about 150 psi for slightly brackish water to 800 - 1,000 psi for
seawater.
• The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel and a semi-
permeable membrane inside that permits the feed water to pass through it.
RO membranes for desalination generally come in two types: Spiral wound
and Hollow fiber. Spiral wound elements are actually constructed from flat
sheet membranes. Membrane materials may be made of cellulose acetate
or of other composite polymers. In the spiral wound design, the membrane
envelope is wrapped around a central collecting tube. The feed water under
pressure flows in a spiral path within the membrane envelope, and pure
(desalinated) water is collected in the central tube. As a portion of the water
passes through the membrane, the remaining feed water increases in salt
content. A portion of the feed water is discharged without passing through
the membrane. Without this discharge, the pressurized feed water would
continue to increase in salinity content, causing super-saturation of salts.
The amount of feed water that is discharged as concentrate ranges from
about 20 percent for brackish water to about 50 percent for seawater.
Fig 2,14 water treatment plant using RO for desalination
• Another type of membrane is the hollow fiber design which places a large
number of hollow fiber membranes in a pressure vessel. The pressurized
saline water is introduced into the vessel along the outside of the hollow
fibers. Under pressure, desalinated water passes through the fiber walls,
and flows in the hollow fibers for collection. This type of design is not as
widely used now as the spiral wound membranes for desalination.
• Post-Treatment consists of stabilizing the water and preparing it for
distribution. The post-treatment might consist of adjusting the pH and
disinfection. If the desalinated water is being combined with other sources of
water supply, it is very important to ensure similar water quality
characteristics in both water sources.
• Two developments have helped to reduce the operating cost of RO plants
during the past decade: the development of more efficient membranes and
the use of energy recovery devices. The newer membranes have higher flux
(rate of water flow per unit area), improved rejection of salts, lower prices
and longer service life.
• It is now common to use energy recovery devices connected to the
concentrate stream as it leaves the pressure vessel at about 20-50 psi less
than the applied pressure from the high pressure pump. The energy
recovery devices are mechanical and consist of turbines, pressure
exchangers or other devices that rotate and produce energy, thus assisting
the RO process in reducing the overall energy needs. The energy recovered
can be as high as 25-35 percent of the input energy for seawater RO.
 Reverse osmosis membranes: materials, characteristics and useful life
• In principle, RO membranes should be semi-permeable, possessing a
high degree of water permeability but presenting an impenetrable barrier to
salts. A membrane should have a large surface area for maximum flow and
should be extremely thin so that it offers minimal resistance to water flow,
but it must be sturdy enough to withstand the pressure of the feed stream.
• Membranes with high water flux and salt rejection rates are made by
laminating thin, permeate- selective membranes to more durable
microporous membranes; these are sometimes referred to as composite
membranes.
• Composite membranes typically consist of a permeation-selective barrier
around 1 to 10 microns thick, cast onto a much thicker microporous
membrane (100 microns thick). The barrier layer can be cast on water and
then laminated to the support layer. With films as delicate as this, film
fabrication and lamination is feasible only on a small scale. The method
most commonly used for large- scale industrial production is polymerization
of a reactive monomer directly on the surface of the support film. Other
methods include casting the barrier film directly onto the support layer either
by dip coating or gas phase deposition
• Combining the qualities of asymmetric and symmetric membranes,
composite membranes have been undergoing development since the early
1980s. They are often used in pressure-driven modules of spiral wound
elements, considered the most cost-effective configuration.
• Polymers currently used for manufacturing RO membranes are based on
either cellulose acetates (cellulose diacetate, cellulose triacetate or a
combination of the two) or polyamide polymers.
Table 2.3 Damaging Conditions for Different types of Membranes

Cellulose acetate Polyamide Composite

pH 4-6 4 - 11 3 - 11
Free chlorine Between 1 and 5 mg/l 0.1 mg/l if pH<8

Bacteria Unstable Unstable Tolerant

Free oxygen Tolerant Tolerant Partly tolerant

Table 2.3 provides data on conditions that may damage the various types
of RO membranes. As indicated, cellulose acetate membranes (CAMs)
are more limited than traditional and composite polyamide membranes in
terms of permissible pH range but have lower material costs and a higher
chlorine tolerance.
A distinct disadvantage of CAMs is their relatively short operational life,
and at the mechanical level, they also suffer pressure compaction as a
result of creep buckling of the membrane material under high pressure
and temperature conditions.
Membrane System Improvements
• Many advances in membrane technology have occurred since membranes
were first developed. The most significant improvements have occurred in
the last 10 years. These improvements have included the development of
more efficient membranes that can operate at higher temperatures, have
higher salt rejection, and greater product water recoveries. Membranes now
have higher flux rates (flow rate per unit area), lower fouling potential, lower
costs and longer lives than ever before. Manufacturing plants have
implemented automated systems, which have improved production and
quality control resulting in lower element costs. This trend may continue with
further membrane system advancements.
• Another industry improvement has consisted of the development of
nanofiltration (NF) membranes for water softening. NF membranes have
a much lower rejection of chlorides than RO membranes. However,
NF operates at lower pressures and has a higher percentage of product
water recovery as compared to RO. Using NF or other membrane
systems such as microfiltration or ultrafiltration as a pretreatment to
distillation or RO has driven the desalination industry away from chemical
pretreatment processes and more toward all- membrane treatment
systems.
• Advancements in energy recovery devices. The new devices now have
greater efficiencies, which result in more energy recovery and lower
operational costs. These improvements in both membrane technology and
energy recovery have yielded significant reductions in desalination system
capital and operational costs.
Energy Recovery Systems
• Energy recovery is now a key component of membrane desalination
processes. This has been a significant improvement in the desalination
industry. Because seawater RO operates at pressures from up to 1200
psig, significant energy is required for the process. Energy recovery devices
recover most of this energy and transfer it to the feed water to reduce the
overall process energy requirements. Typical devices and efficiencies
consist of reverse running pumps (70% efficiency), turbines (77%
efficiency), Pelton wheel turbines (83% efficiency), and work exchangers
(90% efficiency). In addition, pump manufacturers are designing large
centrifugal pumps with efficiencies approaching the efficiency of positive
displacement pumps of 90% as compared to previously typical
efficiencies of 70%. With optimum design, energy usage as low as
11.4 kwh/kgal is now reported possible, where typical electrical
consumption by the high-pressure pumps has been 16 kWh/Kgal
historically.
• Energy recovery is a very important component of the overall desalination
facility since it can help reduce energy requirements and the operating
costs of a desalination facility. Therefore, continued monitoring of most
efficient energy recovery systems is important to the desalination facility
design.
 Multi-stage flash evaporation vs. reverse osmosis
• Although there have been many desalting technologies tested over the years,
RO and thermal processes have had the greatest commercial success. Based
on available literature, the total number of RO facilities (both brackish and
seawater RO) at nearly 40% of all demineralization facilities. The total number
of thermal plants in the world is slightly greater than 50%. The choice between
multi-stage flash and seawater RO needs to be based on a number of site-
specific factors. The inherent advantage of RO is that it has much higher
energy efficiency. Since the cost of energy is usually the major cost of
producing water, RO will usually be preferred, but some factors may overrule
this.
• First is the feed water quality. As the total dissolved solids (TDS)
concentration in the seawater increases, RO becomes more costly because of
the increased osmotic pressure required to separate the salts. If the source
water is high in suspended solids, colloidal material, organic material, or
dissolved metals, it would require extensive pretreatment if RO was used. This
could be cost prohibitive.
• The second factor that influences the choice of MSF vs. RO is the availability
of low cost energy. If there is an abundance of low cost steam available to
operate the desalination plant, the energy efficiency advantage of RO becomes
less important. This can be seen in a dual purpose power and water plant (or
co-generation facility) where exhaust steam from the power plant is used to
operate a desalination plant to produce high quality water.
• One last factor to consider is the availability of skilled operators. While skilled
operators are important for both MSF and RO plants, the relative fragility of RO
membranes requires more skillful attention by the operators to protect the
investment cost of the RO plant. MSF evaporators are relatively hardy and can
usually be restored in spite of negligent operation.
 Hybrid systems
• Hybrid systems use a combination of two or more desalination processes.
These systems usually are combined with the intent to obtain some
advantage over either process alone. The advantage may be improved
efficiency or reduced feed water flows, which in turn result in lower costs, or
better product water quality. The disadvantage of hybrid systems is that
they are typically more complex to operate. An example of a hybrid system
is a “membrane distillation” process that uses membranes to separate salty
water from fresh water and uses evaporation to transport the fresh water
from the membrane surface. Membrane distillation processes claim to have
high efficiencies, but they have not yet been commercially proven.
Other methods of desalination
• A new chemical method is under investigations. In this method, propane gas
is allowed to combine with salt water under controlled conditions of
temperature and pressure. A chemical reaction takes place between salt
water and propane gas at temperatures higher than the freezing point of
water, forming ice like crystals. These crystals reject the salt and accept only
pure water in their composition. These crystals are separated from the brine,
washed and decomposed to form water. The propane gas released during
the decomposition of the crystals can be re-used for forming new crystals.
This seems to be a promising method.
• Various other methods are also under investigations. A lot of research is
going on in this field, and let us hope that a day will soon come when we will
be able to convert sea water into useful water at a very moderate cost; and
the huge quantities of about 155 billion cubic kilometers of open oceans will
be at our disposal to get good and wholesome water.
Selection of a Particular Method of Desalination
As stated above, several methods have been developed for desalination of high
TDS waters, and the selection of the correct process, especially in the 500-5000
mg/I range (TDS), requires careful evaluation of process efficiency, plant capital
and running cost. As a general guide, the most frequent application of the various
desalina­tion processes has been in the following categories of TDS waters (Table
2.4).

Table 2.4 Choice of Desalination Process for Various Grades of Salty Water
S.No. Desalination process TDS value of salty water
to be treated in mg/l
1. Ion exchange Up to 500
2. Electrodialysis 500-3000
3. Low pressure osmosis including 1000-10000
4. nano filtration 10,000 and above
5. High pressure reverse osmosis Above 30,000
Distillation

Out of all the desalination methods described above, Distillation and Reverse
osmosis have infect, been largely used on commercial basis throughout the
world. So much so that in terms of installed capacity, almost 75% of all
desalination installations are based on Distillation, with largest concentration of
plants in Middle East and North America.
However, Reverse Osmosis Systems installed capacity is steadily increasing.
Conclusions and recommendations
• Desalination processes has been in use for nearly half a century for desalting brackish and
seawater sources. Most of the world’s desalination facilities are thermal (>50%) plants, with
reverse osmosis in second with nearly 40% of the total facilities. However, most of the RO
plants to date are brackish water desalination plants. The first desalination processes were
used in arid regions in the Middle East, followed by Africa, the US and the Caribbean islands.
With depleting drinking water supplies, desalination is increasingly being used as an alternative
to conventional drinking water systems, especially where the economics of desalination can
favorably compare to the increased costs of traditional drinking water treatment systems .
• While MSF distillation and RO processes are more often used for seawater desalination, ED
and low pressure RO are commonly used for brackish water desalination. The choice of
processes is highly dependent of site-specific conditions. Thermal distillation processes have
mainly been used where low-cost steam from power plants has been available. These systems
are not as efficient as compared to RO processes. RO plants utilize electric energy, and can be
costly to treat seawater with very high salinities such as those in the Middle East. The reduced
cost of RO systems over the last 10 years has increased the use of RO for seawater
demineralization. These reduced costs are due to more efficient membranes, greater product
water recovery and energy recovery.
• There are several emerging technologies that appear to have potential for significant
advancements in the desalination field. These advancements relate to evaporation of
concentrate to a dry salt for commercial use or disposal, and increased membrane sizes to
improve the economies of scale for larger membrane plants.
• Small-scale desalination options (200m3/day or less) include: solar stills, reverse osmosis, and
vapor compression. These should generally be considered only when all other sources of
water are fully utilized and salt water is available. Even in these cases, the water is often
only used for drinking since it is too costly for agricultural and industrial purposes.
• Medium to large-scale desalination projects (200 m3/day or more) may employ any of
the major desalination options discussed, other than solar stills. (Solar stills are not
appropriate for projects of this size due to economies of scale). The technology choice for
medium and large projectsis heavily influenced by site- specific economic factors. These
factors include the availability of: waste process heat, centrally generated grid power, fuel
supplies, and places to dispose of high salinity wastewater. The condition of the feed water
and local economic conditions and the final cost of desalinated water.
DESALINATION PLANTS IN (SOC)
Desalination Units at Sirte Oil Company - Mersa Brega
• The Brega Petrochemical Complex of Sirte Oil Co. consists of twelve oil, gas
and petrochemical units. They are served by twelve desalination units of
multiple effect evaporation type to provide fresh water for drinking and
industrial uses through desalination of seawater. Table 1.1 summarizes the
information concerning these units from which we note that:
• There are nine desalination units of multi flash type (MSF). The other three
units are thermal vapor compression type (TVC).
• The Petrochemical plant consists of seven units served by seven MSF
desalination units of similar capacity (2400 m3/day). These desalination
units are located in an area called area II.
• The oil and gas plant consists of five desalination units; three of them are
MEE-TVC type of the same capacity (946 m3/day) where as the other two
are MSF type of different capacities (757, 1892 m3/day). These are located
in area I.
• Commissioning of the desalination units started in 1977 through 1989,
apparently due to rapid expansion in oil and gas processing and thereby
created big demand on fresh water.
• The oldest MSF unit was built in 1964 for the oil and gas plant at that time.
Surprisingly, this unit is still in operation yielding 757 m3/day of distillate
water.
 Sirte Oil Company - Mersa Brega
Desalination Units Presently in Operation
Distillate Water Produced by Desalination Units
Fig 1.1 illustrates the distribution of consumption of distillate water produced by


desalination units in both area I and area II.

Fig 1.2 shows the amount of distillate water produced in both areas (for year 1999
and 2000) in comparison with design values.
Figs 1.3 shows the percent of distillate water produced in both areas as in Fig 1.2


Fig 1.4 shows the total production of distillate water from all units (area I and area
II) in years 1999 and 2000. The Fig indicates the planned production and that
actually produced or consumed in comparison with design capacity based on 90
% plant availability.
Desalination Units in Area II
• The desalination units in area II are all MSF with brine recirculation having
the same nominal capacity of 2400 m;/day. The units are (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
built to provide the petrochemical with fresh water.
• Each desalination unit consists of 12 stages of which 9 are for heat recovery
and 3 for heat rejection, except unit 4 has different number of stage and
configuration of condenser. All of the recovery stages are identical in
construction. Fig1.5 shows a schematic flow diagram of the desalination unit.
The seawater is drawn through intakes located about l Km away from the
plant into deep sea. A pretreatment includes prechlorination and removal of
suspended solids by filtration. The following are the major parts of the
desalination units :-
Evaporator
• It is the core of the desalination unit. It consists of 12 stages. Stages 1-9 are
the heat recovery stages and 10-12 for the heat rejection stages. Each stage
has a lower and upper sections separated by a demister. The lower section is
a large room called the flash chamber where the brine water passes, then
part of it vaporizes and passes through demisters to the upper section. The
steam enters the upper section of the flash chamber, which consists of
condensing tubes on which steam condenses to form distillate water. The
distillate water is collected in a distillate tray in each stage. The stages are
separated with walls; each wall has five outlets for the brine water to pass to
the next stage. The last stages (No. 12) has the withdrawal pool for the brine
blow down and recycle brine pumps, beside the withdrawal pool for distillate
pump. The vaporizing chamber is evacuated through a hole in the sealing of
each chamber. The chamber is linked to the main discharge line, which leads
to the steam ejectors (venting system).
Brine Heater
• The function of this heater is to heat the brine water to a maximum of 118°C
by using steam. It is a shell and tube heat exchanger where brine water
flows through the tubes and, medium pressure steam (at 130°C and 3.5 atm
abs.) on the shell side. The condensed steam is collected in the withdrawal
pool located under the heater. The condensate leaves the brine heater at
about 120°C.
Vacuum Unit
• The vacuum unit is partially responsible for the evacuation of the evaporator
and the deaerator. The pressure attained is about 0.07 bar inside the
evaporator of stage No. 12. The vacuum unit consists of:
1. Precondenser.
2. Steam ejector (stage 1)
3. Intermediate condenser
4. Steam ejector (stage 2)
5. Final condenser.
6. Start up ejector.
• During the unit start up, the start up ejector is activated followed by the other
ejectors while the main ejector is deactivated. The ejectors are operated
with about 37 atm (380oC) steam. The steam associated with non-
condensable gases is condensed in a cylinder by spraying water through a
special nozzle at the top of the cylinder.
Pumps
The following pumps are included in the desalination unit:
1. Brine recirculation pump: it withdraws brine water from stage 12 and feeds it
to the condenser of stage 9 (P 1).
2. Brine blow down: it withdraws brine water from the pool of stage 12 and
rejects it to the sea (P2).
3. Distillate pump: it withdraws distillate water from stage 12 to storage (P3).
4. Condensate pump: it withdraws condensed steam from brine heater and
pumps it to boiler in power station (P4).
5. Acid dosing pump: it injects H2S04 to water before entering the decarbonator.
6. Caustic Soda pump: it injects soda solution (25%) to the water leaving the
deaerator.
7. Sodium Sulfite pump: it injects Sodium Sulfite solution (10% conc.) to the
water leaving the deaerator.
Description of the process
• As shown in Fig 1.5, the desalination plant is a conventional MSF evaporator E1 with
recirculating brine flowing through nine heat - recovery stages and three heat -
rejection stages.
• Cold seawater flows from sea enters first the heat - rejection stages. A small portion
of this flow is diverted to cool the Inter - and after - condensers (E3, E4. E5) of the
ejector system.
• The cooling water E5 is discharged to waste while the cooling water from E3 and E4
is discharged by the brine blow down pump (P2). The warm seawater leaving the
rejection section is discharged to the effluent line. Approximately 30% of this warm
water is diverted as make - up feed water to the evaporator in order to maintain a
constant salt concentration in the evaporator. The blow down brine with a reject
concentration of approximately 7 wt% is taken from the last stage by the brine blow
down pump (P2). Provisions are taken to avoid mixing with freshly treated make - up.
• The recycle brine is pumped by recycle pump (P1) through the condensers of the
heat recovery section, thereby recovering heat from the condensing product water
and from reflashing distillate. The brine then passes through the brine heater (E2)
where it is heated to its maximum temperature 118°C. The flow of the recycle brine is
controlled by a control valve and control orifice.
• The recycle brine now has the desired flashing potential and successively passes
through all stages at successively lower pressures and temperatures until it leaves
the hot well of the last heat rejection stage. Interstage flow is controlled by specially
designed control orifice. The vapour produced by flash evaporation of the brine
passes through entrainment separators and is then condensed on the condenser
tubes. It is cascaded and flashed from stage to stage and thereby contributes to
preheating of the recycle brine in the condenser. The product water pump (P3) draws
the accumulated distillate water from the last stage distillate hot well.
• Dissolved CO2 and air must be removed from the seawater make - up stream to a very
low level, to prevent corrosion, and to minimize the quantity of non-­condensable gases
which would impair the heat transfer rate. In order to eliminate scale formation, H2S04 is
injected into the seawater make-up stream, thus converting bicarbonate and carbonate to
CO2. This CO2 is stripped from the seawater in two stages:
• The acidified feed make-up stream first enters the atmospheric decarbonator (TI) and
passes through a packed column. Stripping air is passed countercurrent through this
column. The stripped CO2 is almost entirely removed from the make­up water down to
approx. 4 ppm and then vented to the atmosphere.
• The make-up water is then fed into deaerator (T2) by vacuum suction controlled through a
water level control circuits. This deaerator is operating at nearly the same pressure as the
last stage of the evaporator. In the deaerator the remaining dissolved CO2 and dissolved
air are stripped from the feed make-up by the combined effect of water vapour flashing
from the surface of the spray droplets. and of stripping steam flowing through the column
of packing elements. Stripping steam is made available from stage 11 of the evaporator.
Together with this stripping steam the liberated non-condensable gases are fed into a
separate CuNi­-cladded compartment of the stage 12 condenser. There, most of this
steam condenses. The deaerated feed make-up water flows to the suction piping of the
brine recirculating pump and is mixed with the major portion of the concentrated brine
leaving hot well of the last evaporator stage. In this pipe the injection of NaOH solution
takes place in order to raise the PH value to about 7.8. In addition a small amount of
Na2SO4 solution is added to this water in order to reduce the caustic soda chemical and
oxygen levels to practically zero level.
• After feed make-up is decarboanted and deaerated, the quantity of non-condensable
gases liberated in the MSF unit is very small. Air leakages through manholes and other
flanged connections of the MSF unit, together with the non-condensable gases and the
entrained vapour are vented from each stage of the evaporator to the ejector system.
• A hogging ejector is used for the initial evacuation of the multi-stage evaporator. This
ejector is also a steam jet ejector operated with medium pressure steam (36 bars), which
is led into atmosphere. It is designed to evacuate the evaporator within half an hour to the
initial starting vacuum.
Design Data
The following table summarizes the design specifications of various outlet streams
and average consumption of utilities and chemicals for the seven desalination units in
area II.
PLANT UTILITIES
1 - Steam system
2 - Instrument and service air system
3 - Electric power.
The utilities imported from outside the Plants are:
- Instrument and service air.
- Medium and low pressure steam.
- Electrical power
STEAM SYSTEM
MP steam
Steam at 38 kg/cm2 and 380C is imported from power station and urea
plants. The drawing shows the distribution system in the plant.
LP steam
LP steam demand is met by the exhaust from the back pressure turbines of
the sea water Pumps and from the steam reducing stations. It is used in the
Desalination Unit for heating purposes.
COMPRESSED AIR
Atmospheric air is compressed in two stages to 7.8 bar by power plants and
urea plants compressors, driven by an electric motor. Part of the air is
filtered and dried for use as instrument air. The remainder is used as service
(plant) air. The drawing shows the distribution instrument air system in the
plant.
ELECTRICAL POWER

Power is supplied from power stations via incoming feeders of 11 kV, 3 phase 50 Hz.

Amm. loading
arm
Turbines and
pumps house

Control room
Instrument air
from power station

Air resevoir
Instrument air
Amm. pumps To evaporators from Urea plants
 DESALINATION PROCESS AND SEA WATER INTAKE
SEA WATER ANALYSIS
All refineries, petrochemical plants, gas plants as well as desalination plants,
depend to a great extent on sea water, either for cooling processes or
desalinated water production.
Sea water composition at the intake area where all, plants are being
fed from, showed the approximate analysis as the following:

pH 7.7
Ca2+ 480 ppm
Mg2+ 1465 ppm
Na+ 12150 ppm
HCO3- 180 ppm
Cl- 22000 ppm
S042- 3260 ppm

There is of course a difference in seawater temperature during summer

and winter seasons, due to solar radiation, therefore the upper water
layers of the sea vary in temperatures from those of the lower water
layers.
 SEA WATER SCREENING AND PURIFICA'I'ION
The sea water is taken in at a distance of about 650 meters from the
shore, at a depth of six meters and fed through two pipelines of
internal diameter 2200 mm, into the intake basins, for physical
purification.
There are two coarse raking screens at the outlets of the two pipes, to
remove the floating objects, mussels, shells and their organisms.
Seawater then flows into three intake basins where sand can settle as
well as the sea weeds.
Each intake basin is provided with a sand scraper, which collects the
sand in four sand pits where it can be removed by the compressed
air lift equipment, in the form of a sand-water mixture. Fine
cleaning of seawater takes place in drum type screens (called sea
water cup screens). Those screens have mesh of 1.5 mm, with double
sided water inlet. The dirty screening surface is cleaned by spraying
water on to it, and the dirt are extracted outside. After being cleaned
in the cup screens, the seawater runs into the sump of the pumps,
those pumps serve either the desalination plants, the fire
Extinguishing systems or the petrochemical plants.
Brine in chamber
Sand settling process sand scrapers
Horizontal flow settling basins are in use in Brega for sea water
purification. The scrapers are employed to shift the settled sand into a
collecting pit (5). The scraper (2) travels from a point near the sluice
gate (4) to a point (5), where the air jet lifts equipment are installed.
During scraper travel, sand and seaweeds are scavenged into the pit. The
air jet lift units consist of a lift base with riser, compressed air line and
flushing water line.

The lift mechanism is based on the principle that the specific gravity of
the sand/water mixture is reduced by blowing air into the lift base, thus
causing the air/sand/water mixture to rise in the riser. A three way valve
is installed between the compressed air line and riser, in order to permit
the lift base to be flushed clear.
 Air Blowers M
Cup Screen

Cooling water to Urea

M

Water basin
M
Cooling water to
Methanol & Ammonia
Slice Gate

Sand Scraber

To Sea Fire Water Header

To Sea To Sea
Pumps
Steam Heat Reject
Heat Recovery Section Section

Sea water supply

Brine Heater

Distillate Pump

Concentrated
Brine to sea

Blowdown
pump
Vapour Distillate Brine

Brine Recirculating
Condensate pump
pump
Distillate Distillate
pumps Tanks

Ops.Trg. 2004
Rev.1

DESALINATION PLANT
 AREA II
Water tanks
DESALINATION
area PLANT

Unit
Unit
7
12 6
12 Acid and Ammonia
stages
stages caustic unit
storage and
loading area

Unit
5
12
stages

Unit Unit Unit Unit

4 3 2 1
Surge drum 17 12 12 12
stages stages stages stages

To fire fighting
To plants system

SEA WATER
PUMPS
T T M T M T M T M T M T M D M D

INTAKE BASIN INTAKE BASIN INTAKE BASIN

No 1 No 2 No 3

SAND SCRUPER

AIR JET LIFT

COARSE RAKING SCREEN

SLUICE GATES

EAST WEST

INLET PIPES
Screens with a cleaning carriage
• This type of screens is used in the sea water system in Brega.It
removes major amounts of floating objects, mussels or shells etc.,
intermittently.
• In this case, the drive is mainly by a cable and cable drum. A heavy
cleaning carriage with two wheels for guiding in the screen bars is
held and moved up and down by a reversing mechanism.
• The combs, when moving from lower side to the upper side of the
screen (1), collect the floating materials and throw it in the run-off
channel(5).
Cup screens
• This type of screen is used in Brega sea water intake facilities. The
cup screen is cylindrical shaped, hollow, perforated (small holes),
rotated at low speed/high speed, through a geared motor electrically
operated. Water is sprayed externally to the outer surface of the
cylindrical screen expelling the fine dirt. These are collected in a
trough, where they are taken away. The cup screen method is used for
fine screening of the sea water before entering the pumps suction pit.
SCREEN WITH CLEANING CARRIAGE

CUP SCREEN
Drive

Spray water water inlet

Run off Basket

channel M

Cable Raw water inlet Drum

Screen

Clean water outlet

Guides Sea Water flow

Biological contaminants in sea water cooling systems
• One of the main difficulties attributed to living organisms in sea water is the
reduction in the flow through pipelines, due to drop in velocity as well as the
reduction in the pipe diameter.
• In plants situated near sea coasts, difficulties arise from mussels, shells or
decaying organisms which find their way into the sea water supply.
• When sea water is used in fire extinguishing installations, these organisms
cause a reduction in pipe capacity as well as blockage of valves, hydrants and
other fittings.
• Moreover, micro organisms of the shell creature type and the slime formed from
such creatures on the surfaces of heat exchangers will reduce the heat transfer
rate efficiency of those exchangers.
Typical organisms
• Black mussels are the well known organisms which their methods for
combating can be applied to other organisms.
Mussels
• Most of the fouling problems are due to those creatures which are wedge
shaped, pointed in front and rounded at the back and black or dark brown in
colour.
• Growth is maximum at temperatures between 10° and 15° C.
• The ability of mussels to close up tightly in a fraction of a second, makes it very
difficult to combat it when fully grown.
The combating of organisms
• Numerous methods have been proposed for combating the organisms existing
in the sea water to different plants. The combating with chlorine method is
adopted in Brega petrochemical and desalination plants, as it proved to be more
successful and acceptable in controlling organism growth.. Moreover, it
reduces plant running cost and of low capital cost.
chlorination
• Chlorine is the most economical and widely used agent for controlling fouling
organisms, both in salt water as well as in fresh water cooling systems. It is
used successfully in many plants throughout the world.
• The target of chlorination should be at prevention since there is a difference
between prevention and combating of fouling organisms.
• The destruction and removal by chlorine of fouling organisms already settled in
the circulating system demands not only lengthy periods of treatment and the
use of high concentration of chlorine, but brings with it the problem of the
disposal of accumulated quantities of shells and debris which in some
circumstances can amount to tons.
• chlorination as a means of prevention is thus an absolutely effective method.
This holds not only as its application for a permanent measure but likewise for
its periodic use at suitable intervals, the latter being still more economical.
• Because the chlorine content of liquefied. gaseous chlorine is 99.8% Cl2, for
greatest economy the liquid form is used wherever feasible.
• A number of reactions can occur when chlorine is added to natural waters.
Some of the more prominent chlorine applications are:
1. Disinfection.
2. Removal of ammonia and other nitrogen organics.
3. Control of taste and odour.
4. Hydrogen sulfide oxidation.
5. Iron and manganese oxidation.
6. Destruction of organic matter.
7. Colour reduction.
8. Control of slime and algae.
9. Control of iron, manganese and sulfate reducing bacteria.
• In chemically pure water, elemental chlorine reacts with the water and
hydrolises to hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and hydrochloric acid (HCI).
Cl2 + H20 = HOCI + HCl
Chlorine + water = hypochlorous acid + hydrochloric

acid
HOCl = H+ + OCl -

hypochlorous acid = hydrogen ion + hypochllorite

ion
DESALINATION PROCESS
• The availability of fresh water is the pre-condition for any human activity. Man
needs water to sustain his life.
• Potable water can be obtained from water wells, rivers, streams or springs.
• Water for industry, especially for power stations, as well as petrochemical
plants, is normally obtained from sea water.
• Fresh water produced economically from sea water, makes it possible to
operate industrial plants, particularly petrochemical plants in areas suffering
from water shortage.
• The desalination plant must be operated and maintained with utmost care.
The desalination plant has an adequate design capacity, but should not be
exceeded. If the desalination plant is run beyond its capacity, a loss of
capacity must be expected. When establishing maintenance priorities and
schedules, the desalination plant should feature fairly high up the list, i.e.
priority it deserves.
Flash Evaporation
process description
The flash evaporators were selected to be in operation at Marsa el Brega as the
evaporation process being the most common, more economical and best
proved efficient process.
The process operation can be summarised as follows:
The sea water supply after being chlorinated, coarse screened, sand removed
and fine screened is pumped to the evaporators where it enters the heat reject
section to gain some heat.
Part of it is directed to a waste water discharge line, (sea water return to sea)
depending on the required temperature of the evaporator. The remaining part
is routed to the heat recovery section after passing through the de-carbonator
and de-aerator where CO2 (Carbon dioxide) and O2 (Oxygen) are removed.
Brine (the sea water, so called after leaving the heat reject section), is heated
in each successive stage of the heat recovery section, then in the brine heater
by means of steam.
Leaving the brine heater, the brine starts flashing as vapours in each flash
chamber, where it condenses as distilled water in the distillate trays, giving its
heat to the brine flowing inside the condenser tubes of each flash chamber.
The droplets of brine carried with the vapour are captured by the demister
pads in the flash chamber.
The remaining brine in each chamber flows from one to the other until it
reaches the last stage of the evaporator, but more concentrated with salts
An ejector unit withdraws the non-condensable gases in order to maintain the
vacuum in the evaporator stages, which helps flashing of the brine at low
temperature (below boiling point of the water)
A portion of the concentrated brine is continuously blown down and a portion
of the seawater supply (make-up water), chemically treated and degassed.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Chemical treatment is the appropriate method to keep plant equipment performing well
in order to avoid damage failure or break down of the whole plant.
Temperature is the most important factor, which has great effect on plant operation.
The first is the temperature at which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) forms, the reactions
beginning at approximately 64° C. Next is the temperature at which magnesium
hydroxide Mg(OH)2 forms. This reaction begins at approximately 89° C. At 120° C,
calcium sulphate begins to form at nearly double the normal sea water concentration.
At a lower concentration, or in the case of sea water of normal concentration, the
temperature is approximately 134° C. In order to prevent the formation of these
deposits, various additives have been tested. These additives however, do not
prevent deposit formation, but only make it easier to remove, so that if additives are
used, the plant will require cleaning every 4 - 12 weeks.
Acid treatment of the make up water is the simplest and safest way, sulphuric acid
H2SO4, being the most adequate. Sulphuric acid is relatively easy to obtain and
comparatively cheap. The concentration of sulphuric acid is about 96%.
The reaction with the bicarbonate in the seawater proceeds roughly as follows:
Ca(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
Na(HCO3) + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
About 1 kg sulphuric acid can thus react with the bicarbonate in about
7 m3 of sea water, which corresponds to about the amount present in the
Mediterranean.
Sulphuric acid is added to the seawater until the pH drops to a value between 3.5 and
4. A pH value in this range ensures all carbonates are decomposed and the calcium
is converted to calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate is highly soluble and is only
precipitated above 120° C, at a concentration of sea water is doubled .
The acidified sea water passes to a de-carbonator, where it trickles down through a
ring type packing in counter current to a flow of air from a blower.
The released carbon dioxide is expelled in the de-carbonator. After passing through
the de-carbonator, the pH value of the water is about 5.
The water then flows to a vacuum de-aerator. Due to the drop in pressure and the
introduction of additional steam, a further portion of the carbon dioxide and , above
all oxygen, is expelled.
The seawater leaving the de-aerator has a CO2 content of only 1 mg/L and an oxygen
content of 0.05 mg/L. It's pH value being over 6.
Caustic soda (NaOH) is now added to combine with the final traces of carbon dioxide
in accordance with the reaction:
CO2 + NaOH NaHCO3
The pH value must not rise above 8 , since above this figure magnesium hydroxide
would again be precipitated; below a pH value of 7.5, heavier corrosion would
occur.
To combine the residual oxygen content, which is already very small, sodium sulphite
is added:
O2 + 2Na2SO3 2Na2SO4
The sodium sulphite is quantitatively regulated by hand. Analytical control of the
dosage is not necessary, since the process is carried out with a considerable excess
of sodium sulphite. However, it is absolutely necessary to observe the level in the
dosage tank, in order to ensure, that the sodium sulphite dosage is carried out to an
adequate degree, since it is through oxygen that dangerous corrosion occurs.
Corrosion by oxygen occurs, not as surface corrosion, but as pitting. These pits are
thus local, confined to a very small area, but very deep.
The effects of corrosion by oxygen are shown up by leakages much earlier than with
uniform corrosion of the surface by carbon dioxide.
The proportioning of the sulphuric acid and caustic soda depends on the pH value,
And is automatically controlled.
THE ABOVE DIAGRAM IS AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE HEAT FLOW IN AN EVAPORATOR.

TEMPERATURE t1 Sea Water inlet to the to the evaporator

(Last stage)
(Inlet to the heat reject section)

TEMPERATURE t2 Brine temperature at the evaporator

(First stage).
Before the brine heater.

TEMPERATURE t3 Brine temperature outlet of the brine heater

TEMPERATURE t4 Brine temperature to Waste Water

(return to sea ).
pH CONTROL
Control of the pH value is the key to the proper functioning of
the plant. Neglect of this can lead to failure or destruction of
the whole plant in a very short time, or the plant may become
inoperative , due to the heavy deposits. Damage can be
avoided by pH measurement. Two pH measuring
instruments are provided, in each case controlling the dosage
rate of acid and caustic soda. The measured values from the
two parallel instruments are reproduced on a common recorder.
In the event of a discrepancy between the two measured
values, laboratory tests must be made at once and the
instruments must be serviced to eliminate the fault.
The pH instruments should be serviced and checked by
laboratory tests daily.
WATER CONSERVATION
Treated water is an expensive service to a chemical plant. Therefore, if it is
possible to recover and reuse it, this is done.
There are two major ways in which water is conserved:
i - condensate from steam using equipment, such as heat exchangers, jacketed
vessels, turbines, etc., is collected and can be recycled as feed water to
boiler plants. Water condensate is pure, since it is condensed steam from
treated water.
ii - cooling water used in a chemical plant is collected and cooled back down to
near ambient temperature in cooling towers., It is then recycled into the
cooling water system for reuse. This is known as 'closed circuit' cooling.
SUMMARY
• Water is available from three main sources, each of which contains various
impurities. Water for drinking [potable water] should be free from suspended
solids [removed by filtration] and from living organisms [sterilized by
chlorine].
• Before water can be used in industrial heating processes it must be further
treated to remove hardness salts [Ca2+ and Mg2+] and any dissolved carbon
dioxide [CO2] and oxygen [O2]. This is done either by the Lime‑Soda process
or by ion exchange techniques, followed by de‑aeration or chemical
treatment if necessary.
• If this treatment were not carried out then hard adherent scales would form
on all hot surfaces, blocking up pipes and reducing thermal efficiencies.
 FLASH EVAPORATORS No.( 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7)

Introduction:
Main parts: The unit consists of the following parts:
1. Evaporator: Consists of 12 chambers
(3– Heat reject evaporator and 9 – Heat recovery evaporator).
2. De-carbonator.
3. De-aerator.
4. Venting or vacuum system.
5. Brine recirculation pump P-1.
6. Brine blow down pump P-2.
7. Distillation pump P-3.
8. Condensate pump P-4.
9. Air blower.
10. Sulphuric acid dosing station.
11. Caustic dosing station.
12. Chemicals dosing station.
13. Instruments and control equipment.
 H2SO4
ARAHL

Vent From Sea water

Deaerator
system MP steam

Decarbonator
FRC
104

Start-up ejector

Air
HIC
blower To effluent
Desuperheater
LP
To effluent steam
PISA
Na2SO3 H PSAH TIC
Brine AH
heater

Sea water inlet TR

PS
TI
Na OH LICA
HL LIC
AH AL
LIC TRAH
AL
To distillate TRC
HIC
AH
LICA
To HL

effluent H e a t r e c o v e r y s e c ti o n
H e a t r e je c ti o n
s e c ti o n
FIAL

XSAL
From ejector LICA
CRAH
TI FR
condenser HL

P-1143
Distillate pump
LIC
P - 1141
Brine Recirculation Pump P-1144
condensate pump

P-1142
Brine blow down EVAPORATOR UNITS
pump 1,2,3,5,6 and 7
EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONS:
De-carbonator:
A column of filling elements to remove and vent to atmosphere the carbon dioxide CO2 by blowing air
from the bottom of the tower.
De-aerator:
A vacuum column to strip the remaining dissolved carbon dioxide CO2 and air by flowing steam.
Venting system:
To create and maintain vacuum in the system by using MP steam.
Brine recirculation pump P-1:
To convey the brine diluted with make up water, into stage 9 of the evaporator.
Brine blow down pump P-2:
To convey part of the concentrated sea water from the last evaporator stage back into the sea.
Distillate pump P-3:
To convey the distillate collected in the trays of the various evaporator stages.
Condensate pump P-4:
To convey the condensate from the brine heater hot well to the header and part of the condensate is
pumped to the desuperheater to drop steam to the required temperature.
Air blower: To supply the decarbonator with air.
Sulphuric acid dosing station: H2SO4 is added so that scaling such as CaCO3 , Mg(OH)2 and
CaSO4 should be prevented and thus heat transfer rate not affected at the heating surfaces of the
heat exchangers.
Ca(HCO3) 2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2H2CO3
Mg(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 MgSO4 + 2H2CO3
H2CO3 H2O + CO2
Sodium sulphite dosing:
The residuals of dissolved oxygen are removed from the make up water by adding Na2SO3
2 Na2 SO3 + O2 2 Na2SO4
Caustic soda dosing station:
is provided for setting the PH value in the circulating brine to 7.5 – 7.8 .
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
• Cold sea water flows into the inlet of the heat rejection stages. Portion is
diverted to cool the inter- and after- condensers of the ejector system, as
well as the pre-condenser. The waste from the pre-condenser and inter
condenser is discharged to the suction of brine blow down pump;
meanwhile, the waste water from the after condenser is discharged to
effluent. Sea water leaving the rejection section is then discharged to the
effluent line, while approximately 30% of this warm water is diverted as
make-up to maintain constant salt concentration.
• The blow down brine is taken from the last stage by the blow down pump,
Provisions are taken to avoid mixing with the freshly treated make up .
Recycled brine is pumped through the condensers of the heat recovery
section gaining heat from the flashed brine, which condenses around the
condenser tubes and accumulates in troughs.
• Brine passes through the brine heater tubes prior entry stages of heat
recovery section (the first stages of the evaporator). Brine is successively
passed through all stages at lower pressures and temperatures until it
leaves the hot well of the last heat rejection stage. Vapour produced due to
flashing passes through demisters and condenses on the condenser tubes
giving its heat to the brine inside the condenser tubes, then finally
accumulates at high purity distillate at the distillate hotwell, where it is
pumped by the distillate pump either to storage or to waste effluent line if the
purity is not as required.
• Sulphuric acid is injected into the make up water stream to convert
bicarbonate and carbonate and liberate carbon dioxide.
• The acidified feed make up first enters the atmospheric decarbonator,
passes through a column of filling elements, stripping air is blown in counter
flow through the decarbonator by a blower where the liberated CO2 is
almost removed and vented to atmosphere. The make up water is then fed
to the de-aerator by vacuum suction through the water level control valve.
The de-aerator operates at almost the same absolute pressure of the last
stage. In the de-aerator the remaining dissolved CO2 and the dissolved air
are stripped. Due to make up, flashing and stripping steam flowing counter
currently in the column of filling elements inside the de-aerator. This
stripping steam is taken from stage 11.
• The liberated CO2 and the non condensable gases together with the
stripping steam are fed into stage 12, there, most of the steam condenses
and CO2 with other gases are vented via the ejector.
• The de-aerated water is injected with caustic soda (NaOH) to raise its pH to
about 7.8 and with sodium sulphite to reduce the oxygen level and then
mixed with the concentrated brine leaving the brine hot well at the suction
line of the brine recirculation pump.
• As the incoming feed make up is de-carbonated and de-aerated, the
quantity of non-condensable gases liberated in the MSF unit is very small.
• Air leakages, non condensable gases and entrained vapour are vented from
stages to the ejector system.
• An ejector is used and designed to evacuate the unit within half an hour to
the starting vacuum.
Acid dosing to make up
Sulphuric acid is injected so that scaling such as CaCO3, Mg (OH)2 and CaSO4 should be
prevented and thus heat transfer rate is not affected at the heating surfaces of the heat
exchangers and condensers.
The sulphuric acid (98%) transforms the Ca (HCO3)2 and Mg (HCO3)2 into soluble sulphates so
that CaCO3 and Mg (OH)2 can no longer be formed.
Ca (HCO3)2 + H2S04 CaSO4 + 2H2CO3
Mg (HCO3)2 + H2S04 MgSO4 + 2H2CO3
H2C03 H2O + CO2
Acid overdosing leads to heavy corrosion in the plants.
caustic soda dosing
NaOH dosing (25% concentration) is provided for setting the pH value in the re-circulating brine
circuit to 7.5 - 7.8
sodium sulphite dosing
The residuals of dissolved oxygen are removed from the make up water by adding Na2SO3.
Na2SO3 + O2 2 Na2SO4
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
Re-circulating brine pump
This pump conveys the brine diluted with make up water to stage 9 of the evaporator.
Brine blowdown pump
The brine blowdown pump conveys part of the concentrated sea water from the last evaporator
stage back into the sea.
Distillate pump
This pump conveys the distillate collected in the trays of the various evaporator stages.
Condensate pump
This pump conveys the condensate from the brine heater hotwell to a header and part of the
condensate is pumped to the desuperheater to drop the superheated steam to the required
steam heating temperature.
 CONSIDERATIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
All instruments are electrically operated. The signal transmission is of the
Electric type. The electric signal is converted into a pneumatic signal with the
electro/pneumatic positioned at the control valves. Instrument air is diverted
Only to the control valve stations at the plants.

FLOW CONTROL
The sea water requirements are determined by the following:
- Condensers of heat rejection section.
- Condensers of evacuation system.
- Make up flow.
The cooling water to the heat rejection is controlled by a manual loading
Station ROIC-2, which actuates butterfly valve down stream of the heat
Rejection section. The flow is independent of the cooling water outlet
temperature TI-3.
The make up flow is controlled through FRC-4. The flow is recorded and
Should not be lower than 2.3 of the distilled water production.
The recirculating brine flow to heat recovery section is controlled by ROIC-1,
Which actuates butterfly valve downstream the brine heater. The flow rate FI-
1 is measured and indicated on the control panel.
The distillate flow is measured by FRX-3
The condensate flow is measured by FR-2
PRESSURE CONTROL
Pressure indicator PI-16 indicates the pressure at stage 12 and the efficiency of
the plant evacuation system.
Pressure indicator PI-24 indicates the pressure of the recirculated brine.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
The maximum brine temperature at the brine heater outlet is controlled by
TRC-21. The maximum brine temperature together with the brine temperature
at heater inlet TR-20 are recorded and indicated on the control panel.
The water flow to the steam superheater is controlled independently of the
steam downstream of the desuperheater.
The steam temperature TICA-23 is indicated on the control panel. Actual
steam temperature at the inlet of the brine heater should be set approximately
8ºC higher than the steam saturation temperature in the brine heater shell,
because the saturated and wet steam temperature cannot be controlled.
Brine temperatures in the different stages are locally indicated by TI-1 to TI-15.
Seawater temperature at outlet of heat rejection section and the recirculated
brine temperature are indicated by TI--3 and TI-17.
LEVEL CONTROLS
LIC – 1 controls the distillate level
LIC - 3 controls the blowdown level.
LIC - 12 controls the brine heater condensate.
LIC - 16 controls the decarbonater level.
LIC - 13 Measures and indicates the first stage level.
Distillate level gauges locally indicate the level in stages 1 and 12.
Brine level gauges in all the stages.
CONDUCTIVITY CONTROL
The distillate conductivity is recorded and monitored by SR-1.
The condensate conductivity is recorded and monitored by SR-2.
The recirculating conductivity is recorded and monitored by SR-3
pH Control
There are two pH measuring and controlling instruments: PHIRC-1: to control
the pH of water, recirculated brine entering the heat recovery section PHIRC-2:
to measure and control the value of pH make up water after being treated with
acid.
PHIRC-1 is indicated and recorded on the control panel. The pH value recorded
by pHIRC-1 is to ensure transformation of the bicarbonate to avoid scaling
problems.
The pH value controlled by pHIRC-2 minimizes corrosion problems through too
high or too low pH values.
 START-UP AND SHUT- DOWN
Commissioning of Plant (Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 Evaporators)
Initial Commissioning (after annual overhaul)
Prior to commissioning, certain preparations are necessary. One of the measures to be
taken is the calibration and check of the safety valves. The electrical equipment should
be ready for operation. All utilities should be available, among which raw water and the
steam line piping 3.5 atm. abs, and 36 atm. abs, should be ready. the steam piping
should be drained. The measuring instruments and the control circuits should be
checked for proper operation, all valves and control valves be set to manual operation,
as well as all blank flanges removed. The state of the plant is as follows:
1. The evaporator is cold.
2. The evaporator is at atmospheric pressure, still filled with air.
3. The orifice devices in the evaporator are not closed by sea water.
4. The cover of the CO2 de-carbonator has been removed.
Having made these preparations, starting may be carried out as follows:
1. The 16" valve in the sea water line is slowly opened to approximately 20%.
2. The venting valves of the water boxes should be opened.
3. The 16" sea water valve is slowly fully opened, avoiding pressure surges in the
condensers.
4. At the seawater outlet side of the heat rejection section of the evaporator, control
valve HIC is opened to approximately 30% of the mass flow.
5. The valve in cooling water line at the outlet side of the jet ejector condenser is slowly
fully opened.
6.CO2 de-carbonator is filled via the make up line with sea water, until overflow.
Control valve FV is then closed again.
7. For starting jet ejector, the shut-off valve- in suction piping 6" is first opened, and then
both valves of steam piping 1" are slowly opened.
8. Once an under pressure of approximately 0.4 atm abs has been reached, control
valve FV in make up water line 10" is set to automatic operation, calibrating the rated
value to 50%.
9. Starting of air blower for CO2 de-carbonator.
10. Control valve LICAHL located between CO2 de-carbonator and O2 de-aerator is
also set to automatic operation, calibrating the rated value to 50%.
11. Set acid dosing to automatic operation, by means of acid pump governed by ratio
controller FSAL.
12. Switch on PH value monitors.
13. Start NaOH dosing pump
14.The evaporator is now filled with treated sea water via make up water line 12" and via
stage 12. Observe brine level of stage 1, once the brine level of stage 12 has
reached approximately 30 cm in the visible range, the rated value of the make up
water flow is set to approx 30%.
15. When brine level of stage 12 is in the visible range, all control valves and valves in
the pressure and suction lines of brine re-circulating pump are slowly opened to fill
the piping with sea water.
16. When brine level of stage 1 is in the visible range, the16" flap in pressure line 16" of
brine re-circulating pump is closed.
17. Start re-circulating pump against the closed flap.
18.Open the flap in the pressure line carefully for a very small quantity of flow. The filling
of the condensers of the evaporator should be done very slowly and with great care,
to avoid pressure surges in the condenser
 19. The make up mass flow is reduced to 20%.
20. All venting valves of the water boxes of the evaporator and the brine heater are
opened.
21. When water flows out from all venting, the valves are closed.
22. With the aid of control valve HV in line 16" downstream brine heater a constant re-
circulating mass flow, depending on brine level of stage 1 is set. Brine level should
be in the middle of the visible range and brine level of stages 12 should be observed
simultaneously.
23.Open the shut-off valve in pressure line 16" of brine re-circulating pump slowly,
depending on brine level of stage 12.The brine level should remain in the visible
range, with a view to avoiding an interruption of the mass flow of brine re-circulating
pump.
24.Start brine blow-down pump against the closed flap in pressure line 6" and with the
flap in suction line 8" opened.
25.Slowly open the flap in the pressure line.
26.Set brine blow-down level control LICAHL to automatic operation and switch on
conductivity measuring device CRAH in brine blow-down line 6".
27.Once an under pressure of approximately 0.2 bar. abs. has been reached in the
evaporator, the operating jet ejectors are started. The steam valve of ejector II in the
line 3/4" is slowly opened.
28. Ejector-II running, ejector I is started. The valve on the inlet to the ejector is first
opened, then the steam valve in line 3/4" slowly opened mind this order.
29. Start NaOH dosing pump.
30. Fill the condensate tank and condensate line 1" for de-superheater with condensate.
31. Put TICAH for de-superheater to automatic operation.
32. Slowly open the 10" steam valve in steam line 16". Slowly open steam control
valve PV via TRCAH to 10%.
33. Open the slide valve in suction line 4" of condensate pump.
34. Start condensate pump against closed slide valve.
35. Slowly open the slide valve in pressure line 3"
36. Put condensate level control LICAL to automatic operation.
37.Put control valves XVS of the condensate and the condensate diverting line
respectively to automatic operation.
38. Switch on conductivity measuring device CRAH.
39. Close the 6" flap in line 6".
40. Stop starting jet ejector by slowly closing the steam valve.
41.Slowly increase the steam to the brine beater with a view to increasing the re-
circulating brine temperature at the outlet of the brine heater to 50-60oC. The brine
level in stage 1 will drop with increasing temperature.
42.Slowly increase the quantity of the re-circulating brine by control valve HV, depending
on brine level of stage 1 and observing brine level of stage 12. While run up of the
plant a brine level of approximately 150 mm above the evaporator bottom should not
drop.
43.The brine temperature at the outlet of the brine heater is slowly increased to 118oC by
means of steam supply
44. Depending on brine level of stage 1, the re-circulating brine quantity is now slowly
increased to 803 m3/h, continuously checking blow down brine level of stage 12.
45.Switch on distillate pump when distillate level is in the upper range. Slowly open the
slide valve in pressure line 6".
46.Set level control LICCAHL to automatic operation.
47.Put conductivity measuring CRAH in automatic operation.
 START-UP OF THE PLANT
1. The evaporator is evacuated.
2. The evaporator is filled with brine, the orifice slots are submerged.
3. All flaps and valves at the pressure side of the pumps are closed.
The above conditions should be made before the plant can started as follows:
1. The 16" valve in sea water line 16" is opened to approximately 20%.
2. The venting valves of the sea water boxes should be opened.
3. The sea water valve is slowly fully opened, avoiding pressure surges in the
condensers.
4. Control valve HIC at the sea water outlet side of the heat rejection section of the
evaporator is opened to approximately 20% of the mass flow.
5. The valve in cooling water line 3" at the outlet side of the jet ejector condenser is
opened by approximately 20%.
6. For starting of starting jet ejector the shut off valve in suction line 6" is first opened,
and then both valves of steam line 1" are slowly opened.
7. Control valve FV in make-up water line 10" is opened by approximately 30%.
8. Control valve LV in line 10" is opened by approximately 30%.
9. The 16" shut-off valve in suction line 24" of re-circulating pump is fully opened.
10.Sea water flap valve HV in outlet line 16" of brine heater is opened by approximately
10%.
11.Start re-circulating pump against the closed flap valve. discharge line 3".
12. Open the flap in pressure line of re-circulating pump by approximately 5%.
13.Open all venting valves of the water boxes of the evaporator and of the brine heater.
14. When water is flowing out from all vents, close the valve
15. Slowly open the shut-off valve in pressure line 16" depending on brine level of stage
12. The brine level should remain in the visible range avoiding an interruption of the
mass flow of re-circulating brine pump.
16. A steady re-circulating mass flow, depending on brine level of stage 1, is established
by means of control valve HV in line 16" downstream brine heater. Brine level LG
should remain in the centre of the visible range, observing simultaneously in the centre
of the visible range, observing simultaneously blow down brine level LG of stage 12.
17. Increase the seawater mass flow of the heat rejection section to 780 t/h
18. Set the make-up water mass to 234 t/h.
19. Put the make-up water mass flow control to automatic operation.
20.Start brine blow down pump against the closed slide valve, the valve in the suction
line being opened.
21. Slowly open the flap in discharge line 6" of brine blow down pump.
22.Set blow down brine level control LICAHL to automatic operation and switch on
conductivity measuring device CRAH in blow down line 6".
23. An under pressure of approximately 0.2 bar abs. in the evaporator reached, the
operating jet ejectors are started. The steam valve of ejector II in line 3/4" is slowly
opened.
24. Ejector-II running, ejector I is started. The valve in line 6" is first opened, then slowly
open the steam valve in line 3/4" . This order should be strictly followed.
25. Start air blower for the CO2 de-carbonator.
26. Start acid dosing depending on ratio controller FSAL
27. Switch on pH value monitors
28. Start NaOH dosing.
29. Fill the condensate cooling water line l" for de-super-heater with condensate.
30. Put TICAH for de-superheater to automatic operation.
31.Slowly open the 10" steam valve in steam line 16" open steam control valve TV via
TRCAH slowly to 10%.
32. Open the slide valve in suction line 4" of condensate pump.
33. Start condensate pump against the closed slide valve.
34. Slowly open the slide valve in pressure line 3"
35. Put condensate level control LICAL to automatic operation.
36. Set control valve XV-63004 and XV-63005 of condensate line and rejection lline to
automatic operation
37. Switch on conductivity measuring device CRAH.
38. Close the 6" flap in line 6".
39. Stop starting jet ejector by slowly closing the steam valve.
40.Slowly increase the steam supply to brine heater with a view to increasing the temperature
of the re-circulating brine at the outlet of the brine heater to 50-60oC with increasing
temperature, the brine level in stage 1 will drop.
41.Slowly increase the quantity of re-circulating brine, depending on brine level LG of stage
1, with the aid of control valve HV, observing brine level LG of stage 12. While run up the
plant, a brine level of approximately 150 mm above the evaporator bottom should be kept.
42. The brine temperature at the outlet of the brine Heater is slowly increased to 118oC by
means of steam supply.
43. Depending on brine level LG of stage 1 the circulating brine quantity is now slowly further
increased to 803 m3/h,ccontinuously checking blow down brine level LG of stage 12.
44. Switch on distillate pump when distillate level in the LG is in the upper range. Slowly open
the slide valve in the 6" discharge line.
45. Set level control LICAHL to automatic operation.
46. Put conductivity measuring CRAH to automatic operation.
SHUT DOWN OF THE PLANT
The plant may be shutdown as follows:
1. For short periods
2. For prolonged periods
Shut down for short period
If it is required to carry out any repairs or replacement for any plant components, it is
recommended to keep the vacuum and avoid air leakage to shorten the following
procedure for start up, especially when the job will not take so long. In this case, the heat
supply to the evaporator is shut off and the plant is cooled down to the normal shut off
temperature.

During the cool down period, the brine flow control valve downstream the brine heater
should be closed slowly to reduce the brine recycle flow in order to maintain normal brine
level in the evaporator stages.

After the final shut off temperature has been reached, the brine blow down pump is
switched off and the brine flow control valve is closed.

In sequence, the acid addition, the make up flow, the blow-down pump and the product
water pump are shut off.
Shut down for Prolonged Period
In this case, the evaporator shall be cooled down and brought to atmospheric pressure.
The un-concentrated brine will be flushed out with cool, un-concentrated seawater, and
the shut down procedure is the same as the previous procedures. Only the sea water
pump and the evacuation, system are also shut off, and the evaporator is brought to
atmospheric pressure by opening a venting valve at one of the evaporator stages.
SCHEDULED SHUT-DOWN
1. Switch temperature control TRCAH from automatic to manual operation. The temperature
is slowly reduced to 90oC, the brine level of stage 1 rising with decreasing temperature.
2. The re-circulating flow is reduced, depending on brine level LG of stage 1, by means of
control valve HIC. The brine level should remain in the visible range.
3. Further, reduce the maximum temperature of brine to 60oC by means of control valve TV
(temperature control TRCAH).
4. Further, slowly throttle circulating flow, depending on brine level LG of stage 1 by means
of control valve HIC (see item 2)
5. Stop acid injection
6. Stop NaOH dosing.
7. Put ratio controller distillate/make up (FIQ/FRC) to manual operation.
8. Slowly close steam control valve PV.
9. Stop condensate pump
10. Close the discharge valve in condensate 3" discharge line.
11. Close control valve at the discharge side of brine re-circulating pump.
12. Close the valve at the discharge side of brine re-circulating pump.
13. Stop brine blow down pump and close the discharge valve.
14.Stop the make up flow water by means of FV, switching , off simultaneously air blower of
CO2 de-carbonator.
15.Stop Na2SO3 dosing.
16.Stop distillate pump and close shutoff valves at the discharge side.
17.Close the shutoff valves in suction line 6" upstream ejectors I and II.
18.Close the steam valve for ejector I in line 3/4".
19.Close the steam valve for ejector II in line 3/4", keep this order.
20.Close main shutoff valve in seawater feed line 16".
21.Start ejector equipment for maintaining vacuum during plant shut down.
 EVAPORATORS N0. 6 AND 7
START-UP AND SHUT-DOWN
Pre-start procedure in case of:
Routine start-up
WARNING
Prior to start-up, satisfy yourself that nobody is working on the unit or on any of the
components. The following start-up procedure is applicable on the assumption that:
1. The evaporator is cold,
2. The evaporator is at least partially evacuated,
3. Condensers and flash chambers are filled,
4. All control and shut-off valves are in closed position, exception A-122 to A-124 remain in
their adjusted position.
5. All auxiliary systems are ready to operate,
6. Sea water, steam and other utilities are available.
When these initial conditions have been created, proceed as follows:
1. Open the heat rejection section sea water outlet valve ROV-105 by the manual control
station ROIC-2 to 20% output of the signal range.
2. Keep the vent valves on the heat rejection section condensers in open position until all air
has escaped from the condensers; then close the vents.
3. Check seawater pressure at heat rejection section inlet PI-2. Minimum reading at this stage
should be approximately 3 kg/cm2.
4. Set the controller FRC-4 (set to automatic mode) into operation and turn the rated value for
make-up flow slowly Up to 135 m3 per hour. Once the de-carbonator is full, the entire
make-up flow will be discharged via the overflow.
5. Open all suction and delivery valves at both sulphuric acid dosing pumps, open the shut-off
valve upstream of injection point, start one acid dosing pump. Switch the pH control
PHIRCA-1 over to manual mode. Turn the make-up water pH adjuster slowly to pH = 4.1,
then switch the control circuit over to automatic mode.
6. Put the hogging ejector F-3 into operation. Open the air­side isolating valves A-283,
A-285 and drain valve A-281 in the discharge side of the hogging ejector. Drain
medium pressure steam pipe through A-344 after slowly opening of IAP steam valve
A-345. Then the hogging ejector F-3 is operated by opening the steam valve A-279
slowly. Close the drains
once dry steam escapes.
7. Evacuate the evaporator down to the required starting vacuum of -0.9 kg/cm2/ 100 m
bar.
8. When the vacuum has reached -o.4 kg/cm2, put de-carbonator level controller LICALH
16 (set to automatic mode) into operation and turn the rated value slowly down to
60%. In this way, the make up water is fed via the de-aerator to the circulating pump
suction and to the evaporator stage 12.
9. When the normal 60% water level is reached in the de-carbonator, the blower is
switched on.
10.When the mean water level in the evaporator has gone up to about 30 cm, open the
circulating pump suction shut-off valve and start the pump; then slowly open the
circulating pump delivery shut-off valve and fill the heat recovery section condensers
with water, while observing the stage 12 brine level.
11. Vent all water boxes successively, starting with stage 9 and proceeding up to the
brine beater water box . Set the throttle valve FCV-250 with manual station ROIC-1
in order to obtain a circulating brine flow of about 220 m3 per hour.
12 Open the caustic dosing pump suction and delivery valves , then start the pump. Put
the pH control circuit PHIRC-2 into operation (set in automatic mode), rated value:
pH = 7.8.
13.Open the sodium sulphite dosing pump delivery shut-off valve; then after stirring up
tank contents with the mixer, start the pump. Set the pump stroke initially to 25%.
14. When all dosing systems are operating, the evaporator is fed with pre-treated water. As
evaporation has not yet commenced however, the entire feed amount has to be
discharged by the brine blow-down pump to the blow-down channel. To this end, open
the brine pump suction valve and start the pump. Switch the control circuit LICAHL 3 to
automatic mode and adjust to 60%.
15. After attaining a vacuum in the evaporator of 0.9 kg/cm2. (100m bar) on PI-16, resp. PI-
15, proceed as follows: Open the shut-off valves A-282 and A-311 in the non-
condensable pipe. Slowly open the MP steam valves A-277 and A-278 to the ejectors Fl
and F2 . Fully open the discharge valve down stream the barometric condenser E3 and
the cooling water valve A-115 for 20% flow, approximately.
NOTE:
Do not start ejectors before brine blow-down pump is in operation. Then close the isolating
valves A-283, A-285 and the steam valve A-279. Now the hogging ejector is shutdown, while
the operating ejectors are working. The cooling water valves A-122 to 124 remain in their
adjusted position. Rising cooling water temperatures at the outlets of the barometric
condensers should be controlled by increasing the total cooling water flow to same by valve
A-115 slowly.
16.Open slowly the shut-off gate valve A-341 in the LP steam pipe and drain the LP steam
header through A-629 and A-632. When dry steam escapes, close the drain valves and
open the shut off valve slowly for maximum flow. Open the atmospheric vent A-243 of the
brine heater. Switch the TRCAH-21 over to manual mode. Open the brine heater steam
control valve slowly. Open condensate cooling water valve A-264 for 20% flow. Fully
open A-326 and A-327 in condensate cooling water pipe.
17. When the brine heater condensate level has gone up to about 70%, open the brine heater
condensate pump suction and delivery shut off valves; then start the pump. Switch
LICAL-12 over to manual mode, then, using the level control valve LCV 260, keep the
brine heater condensate level at 70%; then switch over to automatic mode. Make sure the
condensate discharge valves HV-261 and HV-262 are in proper position depending on the
conductivity.
18. Switch the control circuit TICAH-23 to automatic mode. Rated value: 130oC. Close condensate
cooling water valve A-264.
19. Operate TRCAH-21 to increase slowly the steam supply to brine heater and the brine
temperature at heater outlet. With rising brine heater outlet temperature the pressure in the
evaporator stages also increases, stage 1 brine level goes down. When the brine level reaches
about 20%, the circulating brine flow is slowly increased through FCV-250 at this moment, stage
1 brine level should not go higher then 35 - 40 %.
20. Increase the steam supply to the brine heater and the circulating brine flow stepwise at regular
intervals, depending on stage 1 brine level. Also at regular intervals, compare the cooling water
temperature at heat rejection section outlet TI-3,with the circulating brine temperature on the
pump delivery side TI-17. As soon as the heat rejection section outlet temperature is about 1.5
to 2.5 k higher than the circulating brine temperature, increase the cooling water flow through the
heat rejection section by opening slowly the valve ROV-105.
21. Evaporation now commences so that the distillate duct receives the first distillate. The stage 12
distillate level rises slowly. When it reaches about 60%, open the distillate pump suction and
delivery shut-off valves; then start the distillate pump. Switch the control circuit LICAHL 1 to
manual mode. Adjust the stage 12 distillate level to 60%, readjust the rated value
correspondingly and then switch the circuit to automatic mode. Check SRAH 1 as well as the
proper position of discharge valves HV-l46/HV-148. depending on conductivity.
22. When the distillate product reaches 50 m3 per hour, increase the make-up feed slowly. The
minimum make up flow should be 2.34 times the actual distillate production. Maximum make-up
feed must not exceed 135 m3 per hour plus the distillate production amount, ie. approx. 235
m3/hour.
23. It is essential when increasing the make-up slowly, to control the make-up pH and the circulating
brine pH continuously.
24. Run the plant up to the desired distillate production by increasing slowly the circulating brine floss
and the maximum brine temperature at brine heater outlet. Be sure riot to exceed the maximum
distillate output of 100 m3/h and/or the maximum circulating brine flow of 734.5 m3/h at
maximum 118oC brine temperature at brine heater outlet.
25. When the pressure in the brine heater is building up, close the shell-side vent valve down to 1/4
thread.
26. When the rated values have been reached, adjust the control circuit TRCAH-21 to the desired
rating and then switch over to the automatic mode.
START UP AFTER DRAINING OF PLANT SYSTEMS
Warning:
Prior to start up, satisfy yourself that no body is working on the unit or any of the components.
The start up procedure is described on the assumption that initial plant conditions are as
Follows:
1. Evaporator is cold
2. Evaporator is filled with air under atmospheric pressure
3. Condensers and flash chambers are empty
4. All control and shut off valves are in closed position
5. All auxiliary systems are ready to operate
6. Sea water, steam and other utilities are available
If these initial conditions are provided, proceed as follows:
1. Open the seawater shutoff valve A-101 in the seawater pipe to the heat rejection section
slowly for maximum flow.
2. Keep the vent valves on the heat rejection section condensers in open position until all air
has escaped from the condensers; then close the vents.
3. Open the control valve ROV-105 downstream the heat rejection section for 20% flow,
using the manual control station ROIC-2.
4. Check seawater pressure at heat rejection section inlet (PI-2); at this stage the pressure
should read about 3 kg/cm2 . Open the shutoff valve A-115 in the cooling water line to the
ejector unit slowly for maximum flow .
6. Set the controller FRC-4 into operation (in the automatic mode) and adjust the make up
flow rating slowly to 135m3/h . Once the de-carbonator is full, the entire snake up flow is
discharged through the overflow.
7. Open the medium pressure steam valve A-345 slowly. Drain the medium pressure steam
pipe to the hogging and service, ejectors through valve A-344 thoroughly. Close the drain
once dry steam escapes. Drain the discharge pipe of the hogging ejector by valve A-281
thoroughly .
8. Open the air side shut off valves A-283 and A-285 in the evacuation pipe of the hogging
ejector and evacuate tile plant. Open the hogging ejector operating steam valve A-279
slowly. Close the drain once the dry steam escapes.
9. Evacuate the evaporator down to the required starting vacuum of 0.9 kg/cm2, approx.
10. When the vacuum has reached 0.4 kg/cm2, put LICALH-16 into operation (in automatic
mode) and turn the rated value slowly down to 60%. In this way, the make up water is fed
via the de-aerator to the circulating pump suction side and to evaporator stage 12.
11. When the normal 60% water level is reached in the de-carbonator, the blower is switched
on.
12. Fill the brine circulating pump suction pipe and the evaporator via the de-aerator. The
stage 12 water level will be higher than normal and the make up feed will fill the entire
evaporator from stage 12 down to stage 1 (in contrast to the normal flow direction).
13. When the mean water level in the evaporator has gone up to about 30 cm, open the
circulating pump suction shut off valve and start the pump with the local starter. Then
open the circulating pump delivery shut off valve slowly and fill the heat recovery section
condensers with water, while observing the stage 12 brine level.
14. Vent all water boxes successively, starting with stage 9 and proceeding up to the brine
heater water box. Set the recycling brine flow to about 220 m3/h by means of valve FCV-
250 through manual station ROIC-1.
15. Open all suction and delivery valves at both sulphuric acid dosing pumps as well as the
shut off valve upstream the injection point; switch on one of the acid dosing pumps. Put
the pH control circuit PHIRCA-1 into operation; switch the mode to manual; turn the make
up water pH adjuster slowly to pH 4.1 and finally switch the control circuit to automatic
mode.
16. Open the caustic dosing pump suction and delivery valves; then start the pump. Put the
pH control circuit PHIRCA-2 into operation (in automatic mode). Rated value: pH = 7.8.
17 Open the sodium sulphites dosing pump delivery shut off valve, then after stirring up the
tank contents with mixer, start the pump. Set the pump stroke initially to 25%.
18. When all dosing systems are operating, the evaporator is further on fed with water , which
is now pre-treated. As evaporation has not yet commenced however, the entire feed
amount has to be discharged by the brine blow down pump to the blow down channel. To
this end, open the brine pump suction shut off valve and start the pump. Set the control
circuit LICAHL-3 to automatic mode and adjust to 60%.In this way, the untreated sea water
is gradually replaced by pre-­treated make up feed.
19. After attaining a vacuum in the evaporator of 0.9 kg/cm2 (100 m.bar) on PI-16 resp. PI-15,
proceed as follows: Open the shut off valves A-282 and A-311 in the non condensable
pipe. Slowly open the MP steam valves A-277 and A-278 to the ejectors F-1 and F-2. fully
open the discharge valve downstream the barometric condenser E-3 and cooling water
valves A-122 to A-124 each for 20% flow approximately.
NOTE:
Do not start ejectors before brine blow down pump is in operation. Then close the isolating
Valves A-283, A-285 and the steam valve A-279. Now the hogging ejector is shutdown, while
the operating ejectors are working. Rising cooling water temperatures at the outlets of the
Barometric condensers should be controlled by increasing the cooling water flows to same by
valves A-122 to A-124 slowly.

20.Open the shut off gate valve A-341 in the LP steam pipe slowly and drain the steam header
through A-629 and A-632. When dry steam escapes, close the drain valves and open the
gate valve slowly for maximum flow.
21.Open the vent valve A-243 of the brine heater to the atmosphere. Switch the TRCAH-21 to
manual mode. Open the brine heater steam control valve slowly. Open condensate
cooling water valve A-264 for 20% flow, fully open A-336 and A-327.
22. When the condensate cooling water level has gone up to about 60%, open the brine heater
condensate pump suction and delivery shut off valves, then start the pump. Switch LICAL-
12 to manual mode. Then, using the level control valve LCV-2601 keep the brine heater
condensate level at 70%, then switch to automatic mode. Make sure the condensate
discharge valves HV-261 and HV-262 are in proper position, depending on the
conductivity.
23. Switch the control circuit TICAH-23 to automatic mode. Rated value should be
136oC. Close condensate cooling water valve A-264.
24 Operate TRCAH-21 to increase slowly the steam supply to brine heater and the brine
temperature at heater outlet. With the brine heater outlet temperature rising, the
pressure in the evaporator stages also increases stage 1 brine level going down.
When the brine level reaches about 20%, the circulating brine flow is slowly
increased by FCV-250 through ROIC-1, at this moment, stage 1 brine level should
not go higher then 35 - 40%.
25 Increase the steam supply to the brine heater and the circulating brine flow stepwise
at regular intervals, depending on first stage brine level. Also at regular intervals,
compare the cooling water temperature at heat rejection section outlet TI-3 with the
circulating brine temperature on the pump delivery side TI-17. As soon as the heat
rejection section outlet temperature is about 1.5 to 2.5 k higher than the circulating
brine temperature, increase the cooling water flow through the heat rejection section
by opening the valve ROV-105 (effluent) slowly, see also item 29.
26.Evaporation now commences so that the distillate duct receives the first distillate.
The stage 12, distillate level rises slowly. When it reaches about 60%, open the
distillate pump suction and delivery shut off valves; then start the distillate pump.
Switch the control circuit LICAHL-1 to manual mode. Adjust the stage12 distillate
level to 60%, re-adjust the rated value correspondingly and then switch the circuit to
automatic mode. Check SRAH-1 as well as the proper position of discharge valves
HV-146/HV-148 depending on the conductivity.
27. When the distillate production reaches 50 m3 per hour, increase the make up feed
slowly. The minimum make up flow should be 2.34 times the actual distillate
production. Maximum make up feed must not exceed 135 m3 per hour plus the
distillate production amount, i.e. approx. 235 m3/hr.
28.It is essential when increasing the make up feed slowly to control the make up
pH and the circulating brine pH continuously.
29. Run the plant up to the desired distillate production lay increasing slowly the circulating brine
flow and the maximum brine temperature at brine heater outlet. When increasing the brine re-
circulation, increase the cooling water flow through the heat rejection section by means of
manual valve ROV-105 (effluent) stepwise, too (see also item 25). Be sure not to exceed the
maximum distillate output of 100 m3, per hour and/or the maximum circulating brine flow of
734.5 m3 per hour at maximum 118oC brine temperature at brine heater outlet.
30. When the pressure in the brine heater is building up, close the shell side vent valve down to 1/4
thread.
31. When the rated values have been reached, adjust the control circuit TRCAH 21 to the desired
rating and then switch over to the automatic mode.
After an Emergency shut down
After elimination of the failure, or any other case, which led to the emergency shut down, the
operator has to check the present condition of the plant in order to restore the plant. If the
vacuum in the plant was maintained, the use of the hogging ejector will not be necessary. After
putting the valves mentioned in the list in proper position, the plant is ready to be put into
operation again in accordance with the routine start up description.
After maintenance or repair
Whenever a plant component has been shut down for an extended period, for a major repair of
maintenance, special care must be taken to restoring proper operating conditions.
It is imperative that vessels are inspected for loose material, such as bolts, tools, pieces of
stood etc., carefully flush all pipelines and start up strainers.
The suction lines of the brine re-circulation, blow down and distillate and condensate have been
fitted with removable start up strainers.
These grids however, will be removed after start up and commissioning of the plants. However,
if any major repairs have been carried out in the evaporator, it might be practical to re-install the
start up strainer at least for the brine re-circulation and blow down pump and leave it installed
until a next main shut down.
Check all bolts, e.g. for holding weir plates, stage partition manhole covers and demister
supports for tightness. Inspect all fittings such as gauge glasses, flange connections.. etc for
tightness. Check direction of rotation of pumps that have been disconnected from the
terminals. After finishing these works, proceed as described under normal pre-start procedure.
 Continuous Operation
The unit will reach the rated operating conditions about two hours after
termination of start-up procedure. It is essential that these two hours have
elapsed before any instrument readings are taken that will be used in the
evaluation of the desalination unit's performance. Excessive max. brine
temperature fluctuations or brine re-circulation flow variations will cause the
following operational disturbances:
- Low re-circulating brine temperature at relatively high re-circulating
brine flow rate results in high first stage brine level and might cause at
last shut down of the desalination unit.
- Low re-circulation brine flow rate at comparatively high maximum re-
circulation brine temperature, results in vapour blowing through the
inter-stage weirs.
The latter phenomenon occurs particularly in the first evaporator stages. The
result is a near equalization of saturation temperatures in two or more stages
with an eventual output decline.
These phenomena must be taken into account whenever the unit is operated at
ratings other than those specified in the diagrams, e.g. in the adaptation to a
distillate output reduction. This particular case gives cause to a new problem
regarding the distillate flow reduction.
If the unit operates over an extended period at reduced distillate output, the
reduction of re-circulating brine flow rate also entails a reduction of the tube
side water velocities with a consequential intensification of heat Exchanger
surface scaling. This in turn cuts the operating period between two acid
clearings.
With the desalination unit there still be no necessity to reduce the distillate
output. In general, it can be said however, that a reduction of re-circulating
brine flow entails a linear degradation of output, whereas a reduction of
maximum brine temperature by 1 oC, results in a 1 % output drop. A reduced
re-circulating brine flow will not drop linearly with a reduction in output, but will
drop even more. If however, also the maximum brine temperature is reduced,
the evaporator's specific heat consumption will remain virtually constant, which
means the LP steam consumption degrades linearly with a reduction of
distillate
output.
After any adaptation to seawater temperature changes, re­adjust the cooling
water flow to the heat rejection section so as to provide a constant temperature
difference between the temperature of cooling water at heat rejection outlet and
the temperature of re-circulating brine at heat recovery inlet of about 1.5 oC
SHUT - DOWN
Normal shut-down
1. Switch the temperature control TRCA- 21 over to manual mode. Close the
brine heater steam control valve by reducing slowly the operating pressure
setting on TRCA- 21. Close the shut off valve A-243 in the brine heater LP
steam line.
2. Interruption of steam supply to brine heater causes degradation of brine
temperature at heater outlet and increase of evaporator stage 1 brine level
indicated on LIA-13. Using the manual control of valve ROIC-1. decrease
gradually the circulating brine flow so as to obtain a stage-1 brine level
between 20 and 50%.
3. Switch off the condensate pump P-4 and close its suction and delivery shut
off valves.
4. Switch the steam temperature control TICA-23 back to manual mode and
set the control valve to closed position.
5. Switch off the NaOH dosing pump for distillate treatment, close the suction
and delivery shut off valves.
6. Decrease slowly the rated value on make up feed control so that the make
up feed is reduced to about 2.34 times the distillate production. Slow
reduction of make up feed is essential to prevent excessive pH fluctuations.
When the make up feed has gone down to 135 m3, let the plant operate
further at this make up feed rating until the brine temperature at brine heater
outlet had degraded to 40-45oC.
7. When the brine temperature at heater outlet has gone down to 40 to 45 oC,
switch the level control of the de-carbonator LICA-16 over to manual mode
and close the control valve. The de-carbonator now flows over.
8. Switch off the acid dosing pump and close the suction acid delivery shut off
valves and the injection point shut off valve.
9. SWITCH OFF the de-carbonator blower.
10.Reduce the circulating brine flow slowly to 0, using tile manual control
ROIC-1.
11.When the circulating brine throttle valve FCV-250 is fully closed, close the
brine circulating pump delivery shut off valve, switch off the pump and close
the suction shut off valve too. Caustic soda dosing pump for circulating
brine treatment is automatically stopped on switching off the brine circulating
pump, therefore close the dosing pump suction and delivery shut off valves.
12.The sodium sulphite dosing pump is also automatically stopped on switching
off the brine re-circulating pump. Close the pump delivery shut off valve.
13.Reduce the water level throughout the evaporator, using the brine blow
down pump, until about 30 cm level is in all stages. Then switch the stage-
12 level control over to manual mode and close the control valve. Then
switch off the brine blow down pump and close its suction shut off valve.
14.In the same manner, decrease the distillate level throughout the evaporator
the 20% approx. Then switch the control over to manual mode and close it.
Thereafter, switch off the distillate pump and close its suction and delivery
shut off valves. Vent of condensers 9 to 1.
EVAPORATORS NO. 6 and 7 ACID CLEANING REQUIREMENT

It is recommended to use hydrochloric acid, HCl as cleaning agent.

Hydrochloric acid reacts essentially with the alkaline scales.
- Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
- Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2
- Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3
The products are solutions of the chlorides of the salts and carbon dioxide.
Insoluble matter like sulphates, silicates and organic fouling that is embedded
with the alkaline scale will be flushed when the alkaline scale dissolves by the
recycling acid cleaning solution.

In order to utilize the acid's full dissolving power, without risking corrosive
attack
to the metal surfaces, the acid is mixed with a corrosion inhibitor which
passivates the metal surface. It is clear that more scale is formed in the bottom
stages and less in the cooler stages. The approximate quantity of 500 litres of
crude commercial hydrochloric acid, generally obtained as 30-37% solution is
required to dissolve the amount of scale in the desalination unit.
The cleaning operation
A mobile acid cleaning package unit is available for such operations. The main
advantages over the installation of a stationary unit are:
- Avoiding long pipe runs with aggressive medium and reducing the
number of connections.
- Ease of filling and cleaning
- Safer handling and storage
During the acid cleaning period, the desalination unit should be out of operation. The
Evaporator heat rejection section may be cleaned separately while the heat recovery section
and the brine heater may be cleaned either together or separately. The required connections
to the evaporator are all provided and are closed by a valve and spectacle blinds. The
mobile acid cleaning package unit is connected to the evaporator by means of acid resistant
rubber hoses with galvanized connection flanges.
The main components of the mobile acid cleaning unit are:
- 1.5 m3 tank for 30-37% HCl
- 7.0 m3 acid solution tank
- Acid dosing pump with drive
Q = 0.88 m3/hr , H = 10 m
- Acid cleaning recycle pump with drive
Q = 250 m3/hr , H = 15 m
- Caustic soda barrel, capacity 220 litres
- Jet ejector pump for caustic soda dosing
- All necessary piping, valves and instrumentation
- Safety accessories, including 1 shower
- First aid kit, acid proof clothing
The 30 - 37% HCl solution is fed by a diaphragm pump into the acid solution tank. The
acid is mixed with seawater in the mixing tank to prepare a diluted acid solution with a
pH of 2-3, approximately.
This acid solution is recycled through the evaporator condensers and the brine heater by
means of the recycling pump. As the pH value rises, due to the reaction of the acid with
the alkaline scale, further acid is dosed until the scale is removed.
The cleaning process is observed by chemical analysis and pH control, ie. determination of
the actual cleaning solution concentration through colour comparison, using liquid indicators.
The pH value is determined by means of a portable pH meter, which has one scale for 1-14
and another for pH 4-10.
There are two methods of establishing when the dissolution of the alkaline scale is completed

a. Continuous measuring of the pH value at the outlet of the plant. The cleaning
process is completed when inlet and return of the same acid solution have very
nearly the same pH value.
b. Observation when the water has completely stopped foaming. i.e. The acid
has stopped forming carbon dioxide after all alkaline scale is dissolved.

After the scale solution phase is completed, it is proposed to inject caustic soda solution from
NaOH barrel by means of a water jet ejector into the circuit in order to neutralize the residual
acid.
Once the pH value reads 7.5, the acid cleaning unit can be disconnected and the evaporator
plant put back into operation.
It is expected that the evaporator wi11 require one acid cleaning every 3 to 6 months,
depending upon the operating conditions.
 EVAPORATOR NO.4
PLANT PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The seawater supply enters the tube bundle of stage 17 and leaves the tube bundle at
stage 15, where it gains some heat in this heat reject section (stage 17-15).
Part of the brine, (the so called sea water passing through the heat reject section), goes
to waste water effluent, while the remaining part is fed to the plant as feed water.
Before entering the heat recovery section (stage 14 - stage 1), it passes through a
vacuum de-aerator, where sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is injected prior to the de-aerator, to
prevent scale formation of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2.
Leaving the de-aerator, the feed pH is measured by pH meters and action is made to
adjust the pH value as required. The brine re-circulation pump withdraws brine from
stage 15. A constant pressure and temperature is maintained in stage 17 by the aid of
the ejector system. The withdrawn brine is pumped into stage 14, where it enters the
condenser tubes. Then it continues until it reaches stage 1 where it leaves the heat
recovery section (stage 14 - stage 1) and enters the brine heater.
The temperature of the re-circulating brine is raised a few degrees in each stage of the
heat recovery section. In the brine heater the temperature is further raised by steam
heating, after which the brine enters the first stage flash chamber where vapour is
formed due to brine flashing and rises up where it accumulates around the condenser
tube bundle of each stage, then condenses and falls down in a tray as distillate.
The brine flows through all 17 stages forming distillate in each stage and in the mean
time, the total dissolved solids gradually increase as the brine keeps flowing through the
stages.
From stage 1 to stage 17, the brine and distillate flow, is maintained by the pressure
difference between the stages. Distillate is withdrawn by the distillate pump from stage
17 and is sent either to storage or to effluent, if the conductivity exceeds the desired
limit.
Feed water treatment
The H2SO4 injection is for the prevention of forming CaCO 3 and Mg (OH)2. The following
reactions take place:
H2SO4 + CO3= H2O + CO2 + SO4=
H2SO4 + 2HCO3- 2H2O+ 2CO2 + SO4=
The feed water, pH is brought down to approximately 4.0 and the acidified feed enters the vacuum
de-aerator where it is sprayed through nozzles.
Stripping steam is taken from stage 15 and flows counter current to feed water flow and the whole
tower operates under boiling conditions at a pressure of approximately 0.058 kg/cm 2 absolute
(vacuum).
Upon entering into the de-aerator, the feed will flash off and will form some steam and CO 2 will be
liberated. Further removal Of CO2 is accomplished in the packed bed of the de-aerator when the
feed water is spread over a large area and the stripping steam from stage 15 enters at the bottom
of the de-aerator and flows upward taking the CO2 and O2 from the de-aerator to atmosphere, by
the ejector system.
Removal of the non-condensable gases
The stages are connected by vent pipes into which are orifice plates, through which the gases can
leak to the next stage which operates at lower pressure. Gases are cascaded from stage 1 through
stage 10 and from stage 11 through stage 17. Under normal operating conditions, the gases (and
steam) are withdrawn from stage 10 direct to the second stage ejector via the inter-condenser,
because vacuum in the inter-condenser is more than in stage 10.
For start up periods, or for operation under special conditions, a by pass has been provided to
withdraw the gases from the first 10 stages to the pre-condenser. The pre-condenser and inter
condenser condense the steam carried with the gases, thereby decreasing the load of the ejectors.
The cooling water taken from the sea water supply for those condensers is withdrawn by the brine
blow-down pump. After the second stage ejector, an after-condenser operates at atmospheric
pressure, its cooling water is routed to waste.
Plant Controls
Brine re-circulation flow
The following controls are provided
1. Via LT-1206 on stage 17, low and high level alarms are provided to keep brine level in
stage 17. On low level a level switch LSL-1206-3 will stop brine recirculation pump
P-1211 and brine blow down pump P-1212. Stopping of those pumps, if no corrective
action is taken will result in complete shut down of the plant.
2. As the concentration of the re-circulating brine is a proportional function of distillate
production and feed water quantity, a comparison of the quantity of feed water on flow
recorder FR-1205 with product quantity flow recorder FR-1202 should show 2.46.
3. Since a high pH will cause fast fouling of the heat exchanger tubes, and low pH will
cause high corrosion rates, two pH meters are installed, each set supplied with high
and low alarms, provided with interlocks to shut down the plant when no corrective
action is taken.
4. The quantity of re-circulating brine is adjusted with hand valve HV-1202.The quantity
of brine flow is measured and recorded by FR-1203. Another hand valve is installed
just before entering stage 1 (HV-1203). This valve is fitted with fixed stop and can't
be used as shut off valve. This valve only adjusts the exit pressure of the brine
leaving the brine heater to such a value that the pressure of this brine will always be
in excess of the equilibrium pressure of the brine at the exit temperature. This is to
prevent boiling of brine inside brine heater tubes, which will cause rapid scaling.
Under normal design conditions (100.7 m3/hr production at brine temperature
112.8oC). Valve can be fully opened as pressure loss through entry orifice into stage
1 is sufficient. However, when operating at partial load, adjustment may be required.
Brine top temperature/steam and condensate flow
The brine top temperature is controlled and recorded by TIC-1203 and TV-1203.
The steam supply to the brine heater is automatically controlled by TIC-1203 to
maintain the required brine top temperature.
The de-superheated steam is obtained from the desuperheater DS-­1201 prior to
entry to the brine heater E-1202. It's temperature is controlled by TIC-1204, TV-
1203 and its pressure through PRV-1. Condensate for de-superheating is taken
from condensate pump P-1214 discharge.
The condensate level formed in the brine heater hot well is controlled by level
controller LIC-1202 and level control valve LV-1202-1 and totalized by FQ-1201.
A conductivity meter CT-1201 provided with a conductivity recorder CR-1201 in
the control room to check for tube leak. if the highest setting of the condensate
conductivity is activated, the condensate is automatically directed to waste by
opening control valve LV-1202-2 and closing LV-1202-1. When condensate is
routed to waste, hot-well level is controlled by LIC-1202. When condensate
quality is acceptable, condensate is again returned to process.
Flashing brine/cascading product water
The flashing brine and cascading product water from stage 1 through stage 17
do not require any control. Their flow is simply a function of quantities and
pressure differences.
Product Water
Distillate level is maintained in the last stage (stage 17), by level controller LIC-
1204 and level control valve LV-1204-1. Water conductivity is measured and
recorded in the control room by CR-1202. Quantity is recorded by FR-1202 and
totalized by totalize FQ-1202.
Feed water flow
Feed flow is controlled by flow controller FIC-1205, which operates flow control
valve FV-1205 and recorded in control room by FR-1205. Feed flow to product
water ratio is 2.46.
Feed water temperature control
It is important that the cooling water outlet temperature is always approximately
0.5oC above the temperature of the brine in stage 17. The cooling water flow is
automatically maintained by FIC-1204 and flow valve FV-1204. The quantity is
recorded on panel by FR-1204.
Brine blow down flow
After separating the product water from the feed, the difference (concentrated
brine) has to be discharged from the plant. Brine blow down pump P-1212 has
been provided. This pump maintains the level in stage 17 by means of level
indicating controller LIC-1206 and level control valve LV-1206.
Miscellaneous instruments
All important process data is transmitted to the control panel, where it is
recorded or indicated. In addition, the plant is provided with locally mounted
indicators.
ALARM AND INTERLOCK SYSTEM: This system is out of operation.
START- UP AND SHUT DOWN
Start-up Procedure
Pre-starting procedure
(Required after annual maintenance shut down)
- Check all vessels for loose material such as bolts, tools, pieces of wood etc.
-Inspect the grid installed at the brine suction pit in stage 17, to make sure that
small materials will not reach the pump suction. (It is not necessary to remove
this grid in normal operation, but once a year is a must).
- Check all bolts holding weir plates in stage partition walls.
- Check demister supports for tightness.
- Make sure that washers are fitted under nuts for weir plates.
-Check all brine flash chambers and remove any remaining material,
equipment etc, left after maintenance.
- Inspect all fittings such as inspection glasses, flange connections etc, for
tightness.
- Check all pressure gauges, thermometers are in position.
- Check direction of rotation of all pumps.
- Fill the distillate troughs with water to a height, well in excess of sight
glasses, but avoid overflowing through demisters. The discharge valve of the
distillate pump P-1210 has to be closed. Inspect the evaporator vessels for
any leaks from the distillate troughs back into the flash chambers. Before
draining distillate troughs with distillate pump P-210, check proper operation of
level control valves LV-1204-1 and LV-1204-2.
- Now drain distillate troughs, thereby flushing product water lines. Flush or
clean by air the product water line.
- Close all inside and outside manholes.
- Remove from vacuum de-aerator D-1205 the spray nozzle assembly. Open
cooling water supply to heat reject section and with FV-1205 in closed
position, flush reject piping thoroughly.
- Vent water boxes by opening vent valves.
- Remove cover on water box of stage 17 and check for loose material
eventually stuck before condenser piping.
- Build up pressure on sea water supply piping, by throttling the seawater return
shut off valve (pressure not to exceed 6 kg/cm2 gauge) and check piping,
joints etc for leaks.
-Disconnect suction flanges of blow down pump P-1212 and re-circulation
pump P-1211.
- Close acid valve and open feed control valve FV-1205.
- Flush water through vacuum de-aerator D-1205 and piping and via stage 17
flush suction lines to re-circulation and brine blow down pumps P-1211 and P-
1212. Close control valve FV-1205.
- Flush seawater lines and condensers of ejector system. Avoid pressure built
up in condensers.
- After all piping has been flushed, reconnect suction lines to re-circulation and
brine blow down pumps P-1211 and P-1212. Reinstall spray nozzle in de-
aerator. Disconnect acid discharge line at acid pumps and blow out line with
dry air.
- After opening instrument air supply to plant, check the proper operation of
feed control valve FV-1205 and cooling water control valve FV-1204.
- Restart seawater flow and via FV-1205 and vacuum de-aerator D-1205 start
filling the stages 1-17 till a sate level is reached inside LI-1205.
- Start brine blow down pump P-1212 and check for proper operation. Check
the proper operation of level control LIC-1206 and control valve LV-1206 also
for instruments FIC-1205 and FIC- 1204. Adjust where required.
- Start re-circulation pump P-1211 and by slightly opening the discharge valve
HV-1202, start filling the tubes in the recovery section. As there are no
pressure differences over the stages, the brine flow can only be small.
Increase or decrease the feed as required to keep the levels in stages 1 and
17 reasonably constant. The brine blow down pump P-1212 is in this case
not running.
- By trial and error, a certain re-circulation rate can be achieved through the
evaporator.
- Do not increase pressure over 3.5 kg/ cm2 gauge.
- Check all piping and water boxes for leaks.
- Vent all water boxes.
- Check the brine heater tubes for the leaks, the drain valve on the suction line
to the condensate pump P-1214 can be opened.
Start up procedure operation
- Check all instruments and control valves for proper operation, blow through air lines,
clean filters etc.
- Check the operation of all pumps, the signal and alarm lights.
- Check the operation of the pH recorders and conductivity recorders and calibrate.
- Bring steam lines (warm up) slowly under pressure and up to operating temperature.
Drain condensate from lines.
- Do not yet open steam supply to first and second stage ejectors J-1201 and J- 1202
and brine heater E-1202.
- Control valves LV-1204-2 and LV-1202-2 in product water line and condensate line is
open to waste.
- Open seawater (cooling water) supply to heat rejection section and regulate FIC-1204
flow to approximately 1000 m3/h. FV-1205 is still closed.
- Before feeding plant open valve 3-MB in line between stage 10 to inter-condenser and
close valve 3-MB in line between stage 10 to pre-condenser.
- Start feeding plant through make up water valve FV-1205 going to deaerator, at a low
rate and observe the gauge LI-1205 on stage 17.
- Once the glass is half filled, start the brine re-circulation pump P-1211 against closed
discharge valve HV-1202 and slowly open the valve to start re-circulation.
- Increase or decrease the feed to maintain level.
- With valve HV-1203 build up some pressure in the heat exchange tubes and discharge
line of re-circulation pump P-1211. Vent all water boxes on recover and reject section
E-1203/1204. Open flow to all pH meter cells and observe reading or recorders.
- Check this reading against the reading obtained in the laboratory from a water sample
and adjusts plant pH meters where required.
- Start acid dosing and increase the acid flow slowly, until a reaction is observed on the
pH meters AR-1201/AR-1202. At this stage, do not lower the pH further than 7.0.
- Start the blow down pump P-1212 and open cooling water supply to
condensers E-1205, E-1206 and E-1207. Increase or decrease the feed water flow to
D-1205 in such a way that the brine blow down pump P-1212 operates on the level
control LIC-1206 and discharge a small quantity of water. If necessary, adjust acid
dosing.
- During initial warm up of the plant, the vent valve to atmosphere in the vent line
between brine heater to stage 1 should be fully closed .Also the lines between stage 1
and 2 and between stage 2 and 3 should be opened, while the vent valves 1-­KA in
same lines to atmosphere, should be closed.
- Open the steam supply valves of the first and second stage ejectors J-1201 and J-
1202, with the temperature indicator controller TIC-1203 on manual control. Open
control valve TV-­1203 slowly. Keep check on steam pressure.
- Slowly increase the outlet temperature of the brine heater E-1202.
- Check the reading of TI-1213 against the one obtained on TIC­-1203. When
condensate level in hot well of brine heater E-1202 fills the gauge glass, start
condensate pump P-1214 against closed discharge valve to pump condensate to
waste.
- Open shut off valves in condensate line to de-superheater DS-1201 and set desired
steam temperature on TIC-1204.
- Once the level in the hot well is sufficient, the automatic level control LIC-1202 can be
activated.
- When acceptable conductivity values have been obtained on CR­1201, the condensate
can be returned to process.
- LV-1202-2 is then closed and LV-1202-1 controls then the hot-well level.
- Slowly increase the top brine temperature at the same time increasing re-circulation
rate.
- start dosing acid till the temperature of the brine outlet is reached to 50 oC on (TI-
1203),maintaining re-circulation at approximately pH 7.0 (AR-1201/1202).
- Increase temperature of brine outlet and re-circulation flow further.
- This procedure is followed by trial and error, through the sight glasses the level of the
brine in the stages can be observed.
- If the level in one of the stages tends to rise, either increase outlet temperature of
brine heater E-1202 or reduce re-circulation flow.
- The acid dosing should be increases or decreased till the pH of brine re- circulation
should be between (7.4-7.8) at the brine re-circulation pump discharge line.
- Operate the steam valve in the vapour line between stage 15 and vacuum de- aerator
D-1205. (During start up this valve is wide open) in such a way that a pressure of
approximately 0.06 kg/cm2 abs. in the vacuum de-aerator D-1205 is maintained.
- As flashing occurs, the distillate troughs will start being filled. As soon as the level
gauge (LI-1203 on stage 17 is filled), start the distillate pump P-1210 against closed
valve and manipulate discharge valve to maintain level LI-1203.
- Once conditions are stable, open discharge valve fully and activate automatic level
control LIC-1204.
- Increase both temperature at brine heater outlet and re-circulation flow up to design
point; check pH value and alkalinity. observe vacuum in stage 17 and increase cooling
water flow when vacuum tends to decrease.
- Observe also the water flow through pre, inter and after condensers E-1205, E-1206
and E-1207 and increase or decrease if required.
- As the plant is now producing water, although the product is still passed to waste, the
feed has to be increased if the concentration factor becomes too high.
- During the start up period the concentration factor can best be determined by
determining the chlorosity of the re-circulation and of the feed water flow.
 Chlorosity re-circulation
- At all times concentration factor = -------------------------------------------------
Clorosity feed
shall be less than or equal to 1.48.
- When feed water quantity is changed, acid dosing rate has to be adjusted accordingly.
- The product water quality is indicated on the conductivity recorder CR-1202. When a
predetermined quality is reached, the product water can be routed to storage.
- When all conditions are stable, change temperature indicator controller TIC-1203 from
manual to automatic.
- The top brine temperature. is now automatically maintained.
- Under normal design conditions the brine re-circulation valve HV-1203 is wide open.
- Valve HV-1202 after brine re-circulation pump P-1211 is used for throttling flow to
required quantity
- For other conditions, (partial load) throttling can be done with either one valve.
However, with the restriction that flashing over the valve H-1203 or in the line between
the valve and stage 1 should not be tolerated.
- Once properly adjusted, the re-circulation flow should not need further attention.
- Adjust the feed to vacuum de-aerator D-1205 from manual to automatic position.
- Regulate the cooling water flow to the required quantity and outlet temperature. Adjust
the acid dosing by analyzing samples from brine re-circulation and adjust strip steam to
obtain optimum operation conditions.
- During start, venting from stage 10 is through line NC-1208 with valve 3-MB fully open.
- Valve 3-MB in line NC-1205 to inter-condenser E-1206 is closed. Once plant is
operating, close valve 3-MB in NC-1208 and open slowly valve 3-MB in NC-1205 to
inter-condenser E-1206.
- Adjust this vent valve and water flow to pre, inter and after condensers, to ensure
maximum vacuum.
- The vent lines between stage 1 and 2 and stage 2 and 3 can be closed if so desired and
the vent valves in lines NC-1202 and NC-­1203 to atmosphere slightly opened so that
stage 1 and 2 vent directly to atmosphere. This can however only be done at full
production when pressures in stage 1 and 2 are above atmosphere.
Note:
- At partial production rates. when stage 1 and 2 are at pressures below atmosphere,
venting can not be to atmosphere. The brine heater E-1202 can, under these
circumstances, best be vented by leaving the vent valve1- KA in line NC-1201 to stage 1,
slightly open.
- Direct venting to atmosphere is of course also permitted.
- The plant is now operating and should require only intermittent attention.
Daily routine operation
The following checks should be made once every 24 hours.
a.Check the top brine temperature on the temperature indicator controller TIC-1203 and
temperature recorder TR-1203 against TI-1213.
b.Check the reading on the conductivity meter CR-1201 and CR-­1202 against the
results obtained from a sample in the laboratory by the mercuric nitrate method.
c.Check the reading of the pH recorders against the reading obtained from a sample on
the laboratory pH meter.
d. Determine the alkalinity of the re-circulating flow, this should not exceed 20-30 ppm.
e. Check chlorosity of feed water and re-circulation flow and correct feed flow if required.
f. Determine pH and alkalinity of feed water and adjust acid dosing, if required. When HCO 3
content of feed changes, acid dosing has to be adjusted.
g. Check outlet cooling water temperature and adjust if required.
h. Check oil levels in all pumps.
Shift routine checks
The following checks should be made once every shift.
a. Inspect local control cabinet panel for any deviations from set values.
b. Check all flows.
C. Inspect all level gauges and observe proper height of levels via the sight
glasses.
d. Observe proper spraying action of spray nozzle in vacuum deaerator D-
1205, by checking vacuum condition.
e. Check all pump glands for excess leakage.
f. In general, inspect the whole water plant and ascertain every item is working
properly.
Major causes of malfunction and their correction
Alkalinity and pH
- Vacuum de-aerator is not operating properly.
* Check that spray nozzles are operating properly through the sight glasses.
* Check the inlet temperature and pressure inside the deaerator D-1205.
* Correct water temperature and observe pH.
* If necessary, adjust stripping steam flow.
Erratic vacuum
- Steam to first and second stage ejectors J-1201 and J-1202 is not proper quality or
too low pressure.
* Rectify
- Worn out ejector nozzles
* Replace Nozzles
- Air leak in system
* Check, locate and repair.
- In-sufficient water flow to pre, inter and after condensers E-1205, E-1206 and E-1207.
* Increase water flow.
- Too high vapour load on pre, inter and after condensers E-1205,E-1206 and E-1207.
* Throttle vent valve in line to inter condenser E-1206. (Loss of vacuum indicated on
PI-1215 on control panel).
- Second stage ejector J-1202 breaks back. Too low pressure in inter condenser E-
1206.
* Readjust cooling water to pre condenser E-1205 and inter condenser E-1206 in
order to increase pressure.
HIGH CONDUCTIVITY OF CONDENSATE
- Brine heater E-1202 leaks from brine side to steam side.
* Test and repair.
- NH4 ions is carried with steam.
* Analyze steam quality and correct.
- Conductivity meter out of order.
* Check.
- Steam consumption of plant increases and/or higher steam pressure in brine heater
E-1202 is required.
* The cause is steam quality changed either low pressure or wet steam.
- Non condensable in supply steam.
* Open vent to stage 1 slightly and as far as required.
- Brine heater E-1202 or whole recovery section E-1203 A/B is fouling.
*The cause is due to either too high operating temperature or too high alkalinity,
therefore, check alkalinity of re-circulation flow, inspect pH recorder chart for any
periodic deviations from operating pH.
*Analyze feed water for Ca++ and S04-- components. Try, while operating, to remove the
scale by decreasing the pH in the re-circulation flow to approximately 6-6.5. If no
improvement is observed after several hours, scale of CaSO4 is probably formed and
cannot be removed by acid, or scale of heavy layer of CaCO3 or Mg(OH)2 is formed.
- Build up of non-condensable gases in evaporator vessels.
* Readjust vent valves, detect and repair air leaks.
High conductivity of product water
- Unexpected NH4 ions in the feed water.
* Determine if NH4 is present.
- Tube leak in condenser of one of the section.
* Locate and repair.
- Carry over from the flashing brine.
* During start up, change the operating conditions without upsetting the balance of the
plant.
- Increase of levels in all stages.
* Brine level controller LIC-1206 or the blow down pump is not operating properly.
Check and rectify.
- Foaming in stages on the water site in the flash chambers.
* Addition of approximately 0.2-0.1 ppm antifoam agent to the feed will be of use
(beneficial)
Noisy operation of pumps
- Mechanical failure of pump parts might cause noisy operation.
- Cavitations may cause noisy operation. When cavitations occurs check:
* No air leaks into the suction line of stuffing box.
* No restrictions in the suction line.
* Water quantity is not sufficient
Loss of vacuum
* If first and second stage ejectors J-1201 and J-1202 are operating improperly, it is
possible that vacuum in last stages is gradually lost during operation.
Plant shut down: Normal procedure
The plant can be taken out of operation by the following steps:
* Divert product water to waste.
* Slowly close steam supply to brine heater by closing control valve TV-1203 after
switching controller TIC-1203 to manual.
* Divert condensate return to waste, stop condensate pump P-1214 and open drain in
suction line to pump.
* Stop acid dosing and close valve.
* Stop feed to plant by closing control valve FV-1205. after switching controller FIC to
manual.
* Close steam valves to first and second stage ejector J-1201 and J-1202.
* Stop cooling water flow to pre, inter and after condenser E-1205, E-1206 and E-1207.
* Close discharge valve HV-1202 of recirculation pump P-1211 and stop pump.
* When level in distillate trays and brine level in stage 17 have reached the controlled
level, close the discharge valves ¾" & 8" of P-1212 and 6" of P-1210 and stop brine
blow down pump P-1212 and distillate pump P- 1210.
* All pumps have now been stopped, only the cooling water flow is still operating.
* The plant is still under vacuum, but air is leaking into the evaporator vessels and de-
aerator via the ejector system. After the plant has reached atmospheric conditions,
remove brine and product water still remaining in plant by manually operating distillate
pump P-1210 and brine blow down pump P-1212.
* Finally stop cooling water flow.
If it is required to open the plant for immediate inspection, cooling down can be
speeded up by feeding the plant with cold water and operating re-circulation pump P-
1211. Thereby circulating cold water through the whole plant.
* If the plant is taken out of operation for any length of time during below 0 oC, make sure
that all pipe lines and pumps are drained.
Emergency procedure
In all cases of emergency, first divert product water and condensate
return to waste. The major causes necessitating emergency shut down
will be:

a. Failure of electrical power supply

b. Failure of low pressure steam supply
c. Failure of ejector steam supply
d. Failure of instrument air supply
e. Failure of one of the pumps.
REMEDIES:
a. In case of electrical power supply failure, close immediately steam to brine heater E-
1202 and ejector system. Close valve in acid supply line and stop feed to plant.
Close discharge valves of all pumps, bring to atmospheric conditions, drain and make
ready for restart.
b/c.Close vent valve 1-KA in vent line between brine heater and stage 1. Then close
steam supply to brine heater E-1202 and ejector system. Then stop condensate pump
P-1214 and open drain in suction line to condensate pump. Later follow the same
procedure as stated in normal plant shutdown procedures.
d. Instrument air supply failure does not necessarily mean that the plant has to be
stopped. If acted upon promptly, it is possible to keep the plant in operation. On failure
of air supply, all control valves close except LV-1202-2 and LV-1204-2, which open
Upon air pressure failure, immediately manually open the steam control valve TV-1203
to a position approximately equal to its normal operating position. Partly close
manually the control valves for condensate and product water level control. Partly
open the brine blow down control valve and manually readjust the feed control valve
FV-1205 to the required quantity. While one operator manually controls the level of
brine, distillate and condensate, another operator manually controls the brine heater
outlet temperature. If product quality is within required limits, return product water flow
again to storage. When air supply is restored, bring plant back on automatic control.
e. Failure of any pump, (except the acid pump), the plant has to be taken out of operation.
In such a case, stop stream flow to brine heater E-1202 and ejectors and stop feed to
plant. Later follow the same procedure in normal plant shut down procedure. If one
acid pump stopped, the spare pump should be started immediately.
NOTE:
On control panel, a switch is available to shut down the plant in cases of emergency. By
operating this "Emergency stop" the electrical power supply will be disconnected as
cooling water supply will continue, stop feed to de-aerator.
 MP Steam Sea water

EJECTOR
J-1202

EJECTOR
J-1201
Vent
PreCondenser E-
1205
LP Steam Desuperheater
After Condenser
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM E-1207 Int e rcondenser E-
1206
DESALINATION PLANT
TV
120 AREA - 2
3
Flash Evaporator "4" VACUUM
Sea water
DEAERATOR
TIC return Sea water ARA
1204 return

PIA
BRINE HEATER 1204 FIRC
TIRCA E-1202 1204
1204

D-1205
FV
srtage

srtage

srtage
LICA 1205
1st

1st

1st
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1204
LICL FIRC
1202 1204
HV
1203

LICA Na 2 SO 3
1206 Injection
Antifoam Acid
E-1204 Injection Injection
E-1203A E - 1203B ARA
Heat Rejection
Section
LV
Heat Recovery Section Heat Recovery Section 1204

FR ARA
QI
LV FRQI CRA
1202.1 FV 1202 1202
To condensate FRA 1204
1203
Tank
Sea water

DISTILLAT
SEA WATER
CT
return SUPPLY

E
CONDENSATE
HV
PUMP -1214
1202 PI DISTILLATE
PUMP P1210
1202.2
LV

BRINE
RECIRCULATION
PUMP-1211
BRINE BLOW DOWN PUMP-1212

TO WASTE
THERMAL COMPRESSION UNITS No.5, 6, and 7 (AREA-1)
General Description
The thermal compression (T.C) spray film evaporator distillation plant is of the horizontal tube
SPRAY-FILM design and incorporates treatment of the feed water for scale control. When
operated properly, distilled water produced from a normal seawater source will contain not
more than 4 ppm total dissolved solids, (expressed as sodium chloride by the conductivity
method after boiling).
The Spray Film principle refers to the method employed to efficiently distribute the fluid to be
evaporated over the outside surface of the evaporator tube bundle. In each effect, the many
spray nozzles which distribute the effect feed over the evaporator tube bundle in a rain of fine
droplets as they leave the spray nozzles and fall on the evaporator tube bundle, assure even
fluid distribution in a thin liquid film creating a high heat transfer.
Thermal Compression
The desalination plant design utilizes the vapour compression process with two SPRAY-FILM
evaporator effects. The TC-2 design utilizes a steam motivated jet type (thermal) compressor
which greatly simplifies operation and maintenance as compared with the alternative use of
centrifugal compressors in the process design. Plant reliability is assured through limiting the
maximum brine temperature to 150oF which minimizes scale formation. To further minimize
potential scale formation, a once-through feedwater flow process is utilized. With proper
operation, corrosion is eliminated and long plant life is assured.
Process description
Feed water enters the plant through the feed strainer and continues through the final
condenser, an air operated flow control valve (FCV- 6), spray pipe header manifold effect #2
and into the evaporator. The feed is sprayed over the tubes where part of it is vaporized and
the remainder drops down into the 2nd effect sump. The brine transfer pump (P-1) takes the
feed water brine mixture from effect #2 sump and pumps it through the after-condenser and
into the spray header of effect #1. Nozzles again spray the feed water over the tube bundle. A
portion of the spray striking the hot tubes flashes into vapour. The feed water that is not
vaporized collects on the floor of the lst effect evaporator shell and flows into the lst effect
brine sump. The feed water is then pumped out as brine blow-down.
Vapour & Steam
High pressure steam supplied is the motive force for the process. This steam is used to
generate medium pressure steam in a shell and tube heat exchanger, the re-boiler via control
valves FCV-5 and PCV-4 or alternatively, the high pressure steam can be pressure reduced
via valve PCV-6 to medium pressure where it is used by the thermal compressor.
Warning:
When using high pressure steam and an alternate thermal compressor steam supply (thereby
bypassing the re-boiler) any chemicals carried over in the steam may end up in the product
water since this steam is condensed and forms part of the product. Also, distillate cannot be
sanitized using distillate sanitizing heater.
The medium pressure steam from the re-boiler or alternate thermal compressor steam
supply, is introduced into the nozzle of the thermal compressor via control valve PCV-5. This
steam then mixes with low pressure steam drawn from the shell of the 2nd effect. This
mixture flows through the diffuser of the thermal compressor, thereby being compressed to a
higher pressure.
This steam then enters the tube-side of the 1st effect, condenses into distillate and flows into
the distillate sump. The vapours generated in the 1st effect flow through the stainless steel
mesh vapour separators (demisters, allowing only pure vapour to be drawn into the lower
tubes of the 2nd effect. These vapours condense into distillate which flows into the distillate
sump. Part of the vapours generated in the shell of the 2nd effect condenses on the tube
surface of the final condenser; drain into the distillate trough and from there into the distillate
sump. The rest of the vapours mix with the medium pressure steam in the suction of the
thermal compressor.
Blow-down
The feed water in the Ist effect brine sump is discharged from the unit to waste. This waste or
"blow-down" insures that the salt concentration in the sump remains at a minimum level. High
salt concentration accelerates scale formation on the tube bundle. Blow-down is taken front
the blow-down pump discharge and passes through level control valve (LCV-1) and to waste.
The ratio of feed to blow-down is 1.42 : 1 when operating in normal seawater.
Distillate
Distillate is formed in the lower evaporator tubes by condensation of the evaporator
vapour. The heat of the vapour is transferred through the walls of the tubes to the water
being sprayed over them. This loss of heat condenses the vapour into distillate which
flows out of the tubes into the bottom of the distillate sump to the distillate pump.
In effect, #2 distillate is also formed by the vapours rising to the final condenser (upper
U-tube bundle) and condensing on the tubes cooled by incoming feed water. The
resulting distillate falls into the distillate trough below and flows into the distillate sump.
Scale formation and control
Many chemicals are dissolved in seawater. They are primarily sodium, calcium, chloride,
magnesium, carbon dioxide gas and sulfur. These dissolved materials amount to about
3.5% of the weight of seawater. This means that 1 cubic meter of seawater contains 35
kilograms of dissolved material.
When seawater is heated and a portion evaporated, some ions break down and combine
with other ions. One of the first ions to break down is bicarbonate (to carbonate). The
carbonate ion combines with calcium to form calcium carbonate and with magnesium to
form magnesium hydroxide. These are the two most common types of scale forming
compounds. They are both readily dissolved by acid.
Under extreme conditions, calcium sulfate will form. One type of calcium sulfate which
forms under the very worst of extreme conditions is gypsum (a type of concrete).
Calcium sulfate scale removal requires special chemicals.
The water which is sprayed over the tubes is sufficiently concentrated to form calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide scale at temperatures above 55oC, (131oF). These
two compounds form tightly bound crystalline structures which adhere to the hot tubes.
The higher the concentration level rises, the faster these crystals will form, and in
addition, calcium sulfate will begin to appear.
At an operating temperature above 100 oC, (212 oF), gypsum will form if the
concentration reaches 10%. Vapour compression distilling plants are not designed to
operate at this concentration level.
To control calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide scale formation, a scale control
chemical is injected into the feed water before it enters the spray manifold of the
distillation plant. This chemical attaches itself to the crystal interfaces and distorts the
structure of the scale. This distortion accomplishes three things.

1. The rate of scale formation is reduced.

2. The scale formed is weakly bound together and will not
adhere as tightly to the tube surface.
3. The scale structure is open between crystals, allowing easier acid penetration for
faster and more effective scale removal.

Scale control is important because scale reduces the efficiency of the distilling plant. As
scale forms on the tube bundle, it acts as insulation. This reduces the amount of heat
transfer between the condensing distillate within the tubes and the feed water sprayed
over them.
As the distilling plant becomes scaled, the temperatures and pressures will change. The
amount of power required for operation will increase and the distillate production rate will
decrease. This loss of distillate output is the measure used to judge the extent of scale
formation. The unit should be cleaned when the distillate output falls below 90-95% of
rated capacity.
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
Evaporator shell
The evaporator shell is a tubular vessel constructed of 90-10 copper nickel plates, externally
reinforced with structural steel. It houses the exchanging tubes, spray pipe assemblies and
stainless steel mesh vapour separators.
Evaporator Heat Exchanging Tubes
These tubes are supported in 90-10 copper nickel tube-sheets and tube support plates. Most
of the tubes are also made of 90-10 copper nickel. The top several rows of tubes are high
grade stainless steel. Compressed steam vapour is condensed into distillate in the tubes by
transfer of heat to the water being sprayed over the tube bundle.
Thermal – Compressor
A steam-jet thermal compressor is a simplified type of compressor which has no moving
parts, such as pistons, valves or rotor. It consists essentially of a steam nozzle that
discharges a high velocity jet of steam across a suction chamber that is connected to the
evaporator.
The vapour to be compressed is entrained by the steam and carried into a venturi-shaped
diffuser which converts the velocity energy of steam into pressure energy.
Re-boiler
The medium pressure boiler uses 600 psig steam on the tube side to generate 300 psig
uncontaminated steam on the shell side.
Distillate Sanitizing Heater
Heater by which distillate is pre-heated to bring temperatures above the required sanitizing
standards.
Distillate Cooler
Shell-and-tube component in which a portion of the seawater feed, directed through the
tubes, cools the distillate passing through the shell from the heater to storage.
Condensate Cooler
Cooler by which condensate is cooled prior to returning to system.
Chemical Injection System (Polyphosphate)
The chemical injection system consists of a cylindrical tank, manually adjusted
proportioning pumps and necessary valves and piping. It is used to inject a scale control
chemical (polyphosphate) into the feed water.
Caustic System
The caustic system consists of a cylindrical tank, manually adjusted proportioning pump
and necessary valves and piping. It is used to intermittently inject caustic into the feed
water of the re-boiler to adjust re-boiler pH.
Vacuum System
The evaporator operating vacuum is started by means of a high-pressure steam-jet
steam ejector system. Once the vacuum is established, the chief function of the steam
ejector system is to remove the non- condensable gases entering the evaporator via the
feed stream and leakage. The vacuum is maintained by the condensing action of the
vapour on the upper tube bundle.
Water Pumps
The distillate, brine blow-down and brine transfer pumps are skid mounted, centrifugal
type, equipped with stuffing box packing. All require sealing water. The re-boiler make up
pump is multi stage with a mechanical seal located in direct flow with the pumping,
providing recommended flushing.
INSTRUMENTS, PANEL AND CONTROL VALVES
a. Control Philosophy
The desalting plant is instrumented for continuous remote automatic operation with
manual start-up and shut-down. Visual displays on the control panel and enunciator,
monitor important process parameters and ensure efficient plant operation.
b. Purpose of Process Control Loops
1.Seawater make-up flow control (FIC-6) to maintain a constant flow of make-up feed to the
second effect.
2.Effect #2 Brine level control (LC-2) to maintain an adequate suction head on the brine
transfer pump, to control the feed rate to the first effect and to prevent brine from flooding
the second effect.
3.Effect #1 Brine level control (LC-1) to maintain an adequate suction head on the brine blow-
down pump, to control the blow down rate, and to prevent brine from flooding the first
effect.
4.Distillate level control (LC-3) to maintain an adequate suction head on the distillate pump
and to prevent distillate from flooding both effects.
5.Re-boiler shell level control (LC-4) to prevent make-up from flooding the re-boiler.
6.High pressure steam condensate level control (LC-5) to prevent condensate from flooding
the tube-side of the re-boiler.
7.Effect #1 Distillate Conductivity Monitors (CIT-3B & CIT-3C) to measure and indicate the
product water conductivity (salinity) from the first effect.
8.Effect #2 Distillate Conductivity Monitor (CIT-3D) to measure and indicate the product water
conductivity (salinity) from the second effect.
9. Final Condenser Distillate Conductivity Monitor (CIT-3F) to measure and indicate the
product water conductivity (salinity) from the final condenser.
10.After Condenser Distillate Conductivity Monitor (CIT-3E) to measure and indicate the
product water conductivity (salinity) from the after condenser.
11.Plant Distillate Conductivity Monitor (CIT-3A) to measure and indicate the plant distillate
conductivity (salinity) and to control its distribution to storage or dump to waste.
12. Plant Distillate Flow Monitor (FR-3) to measure plant distillate production.
13.Re-boiler Pressure Control (PIC-4) to control the re-boiler discharge pressure.
14.Thermal-Compressor Steam Pressure (HC-5) to remote-manually adjust the steam
pressure to the inlet of the thermal compressor.
15.First Effect Temperature Control (TIC-1) controls the temperature in the first effect by
adjusting the cooling water flow through the final condenser.
16.Distillate Temperature Control (TIC-3) to control the distillate outlet temperature from the
distillate sanitizing heater at 1650F.
17.High Pressure Steam Condensate flow (FR-5 and FO-5) to measure and totalize high
pressure steam condensate.
18.Total Seawater Flow (FR-7 and FQI-7) measures and totalizes the total seawater flow to
the plant.
19.Main Steam Flow (FQI-8) totalizes the high pressure steam flow to the plant.
c. Control Panel
The control panel houses the various electrical components necessary for the operation of
the evaporator.
d. Control Valves
Butterfly and globe type
e. Type of Instrumentation
1. Analytical (conductivity) - electronic
2. Other - pneumatic
3. Instrument schedule appears in the drawings section of the manual .
Operating Efficiency
The distilling plant operates at maximum efficiency under the following conditions:
1.Heat transfer surfaces of tubes are free of scale.
2.Balance is maintained between heat input and heat loss.
3.The correct distillate to blow-down flow ratio is maintained.
4.The scale control programme is maintained.
START-UP AND SHUTDOWN
Start-up Outline

The distilling plant is started up manually in the following steps:

1. Compressed air is admitted to all air-operated instruments, and the instruments are
checked out, as far as possible.
2. The control panel is checked out and all electrically operated control systems
(distillate, condensate diversion, etc) are actuated through their duty cycles.
3. Seawater flow is established through final condenser and into effect 2.
4. Brine transfer pump is started to establish the re-circulated brine flow through the after
condenser and into effect #1.
5. Brine blow-down pump is started.
6. TIC-1, Effect #1 temperature controller, is placed into AUTO position for cooling water.
7. Valves V-97 and V-122 are opened to allow cooling water to distillate cooler.
8. Fill distillate sump and start distillate pump to fill reboi1er.
9. Heating steam is admitted to preheat re-boiler and bring re- boiler up to pressure.
10.Start re-boiler make up pump when re-boiler pressure exceeds distillate pump
pressure.
11.Open steam to ejector to pull vacuum on evaporator.
12.Motive steam is admitted to thermo-compressor.
13.Chemical injection system is put into operation.
14.When the plant has leveled out and all design flow rates are reached, commission
sanitizing heater and distillate cooler and close bypasses.
15.When temperatures and pressures have reached their design rates, place all
automatic control systems into their automatic mode.
Pre-start- up Checks
1.Determine the polyphosphate chemical injection system is serviced and
ready to be put into operation.
2.Determine that all plant service requirements of seawater, steam, electric
power, service water and compressed air are available at their design
volume, temperature and pressure as applicable.
3.Water pumps must be primed before they are started up.
NEVER START A WATER PUMP DRY
Because of the physical location of the pumps on this distilling plant, they can
be primed by simply opening their respective suction line valves and suction
line vent valves (when installed) after insuring that the suction line is full of
water.
Preliminary Procedures
1.Blow down the air supply manifold at the rear of panel. Insure that air supply
regulator provides 20 psig air pressure. Admit compressed air to all air
regulated Instruments and operate each through its duty cycle. Check out the
operation of each air controlled system at the panel.
2.Insure that the panel is powered electrically and test panel alarm indicator
lights.
3.Manually set distillate conductivity controls to DUMPING position through
waste control valve LCV-3B.
4.Conduct a physical inspection of the entire plant to be sure it is operable.
5. Close all vent and drain valves except vent valve V-136 on distillate pump
suction line. This must be opened fully. Close all sample valves (V-29, V-74,
V-139, V-141, V-142 & V-143).
6. Check out all systems to determine that they are ready for operation.
7. All valves should be in the closed position (list of the valves) , except control
valves associated with controllers listed in Section B should be open.
8. Place the following controllers on MANUAL at the panel and set at zero
output as seen on the scale of each controller.
- TIC-1 Effect #1 Temperature
- TIC-3 Distillate Temperature
- FIC-6 Seawater Feed Flow
- PIC-4 Re-boiler pressure
- HC-5 Thermal-compressor steam pressure
- PCV-5 Alternate thermal-compressor steam pressure

All the level controllers should be left on automatic operation.

START-UP (Using re-boiler for medium pressure steam supply to thermal
compressor)
1. Admit seawater to final condenser, then control the flow with FIC-6 (Seawater
Feed indicator Controller) so that flow rate of 350 gpm is established.
2. When effect #2 brine pump sump level starts to rise above design operating level
(half way on level indicator), start the brine transfer pump and put LCV-2 effect
#2 brine level control valve on automatic control.
If the brine level drops to a low point, stop the pump. Do not proceed until the
pump is operating and maintaining a normal level.
3. When effect #1 blow-down pump sump level starts to rise above design operating
level, start the brine blow-down pump and put LCV-1 effect #1 brine level control
valve on automatic control.
4. Increase seawater feed flow rate with FIC-6 to setting of 450 GPM. Insure
seawater low flow trip (1-2) is in override. HS-6 is used for this purpose.
6. Admit distillate through V-36 (Distillate Sump Fill Line) fully open. When the
design level (halfway) is reached on LC-3 (indicating Controller, Distillate level),
start the distillate pump. Manually set distillate conductivity control to dump
distillate flow through waste through LCV-3B.

NOTE: Distillate pump is started to fill and maintain normal operating level in
re-boiler during warm-up period of re-boiler.
7. Set re-boiler shell level controller LCV-4 on automatic control.
8. Set TIC-1 effect #1 (Temperature Controller) in automatic operation with setting
of 1500F.
9. Open V-147 Drain Valve to drain steam line, then close V-147 after draining is
complete. Change FCV-5 to AUTO position on control panel.
10. Raise set point PCV-6 to 300 psig .
11. Insure both ejector steam valves V-47 and V-48 are open plus ejector suction
valves V-49 and V-50. Set HC-5 to 5% to crack open PCV-5.
15. When effect #2 (P-17) pressure reaches 25" Hg Vac., slowly open PCV-5 using
HC-5 until PCV-5 is fully open.
16. Shut down after one steam ejector (shut suction valve first). Open V-134 after
condenser drain to distillate pump. Shut V-135 drain to waste. Shut V-129 vent to
atmosphere.
17. Start chemical treatment system (polyphosphate) pump and put system Into
operation by opening feed valve V-4.
18. Open V-54 (De-superheater Water) and maintain temperature of 170OF on TI-
11, thermal-compressor discharge to effect #1. Close de-superheater strainer
blowdown V-55.
19. As soon as the conductivity of the distillate reaches acceptable levels, place
conductivity control CR-3A on automatic operation.
20. Slowly increase the effect #1 temperature controller (TIC-1) to set point of 1600F.
21. When unit begins making water (indicated by TI-3 rise to approximately 130 oF or
drop in distillate pump pressure, (P-26), shut V-36.
22. Slowly increase seawater flow FIC-6 to 582 gpm and switch off low flow trip (1-2)
override switch HS-6.
26. Bring all flows to design conditions and all controllers on automatic control.
NOTE. Only open PCV-5, thermal compressor supply pressure valve, to desired
distillate flow rate of 173.6 gpm.
START-UP (Using the alternate thermal compressor steam supply source)
The following changes are required to the procedures in sections d ,e when
operating the plant using the alternate thermal compressor steam supply source.
WARN1NG
When using high pressure steam as an alternate thermal compressor steam supply,
(thereby bypassing the re-boiler), any chemicals carried over in the steam may end
up in the product water, since this steam is condensed and forms part of the
product. Also, distillate cannot be sanitized using distillate sanitizing heater.
Operating Procedures
Once the distillation plant is on line and operation is stabilized, continuous operation
is essentially automatic. However, routine inspections and recordings of
temperatures, pressures and flows and special attention to any deviations from
normal indications are required. Operating procedures are directed towards
stabilized production of high quality distillate over long periods of maintenance free
service.
Temperature Differentials
Check and record temperature differentials throughout the evaporator at frequent
intervals.
Other conditions
Other conditions which operating personnel should be alerted to include:
1. Salinity increase in the distillate
2. Abnormal deviations in the flows of seawater feed, brine transfer and distillate.
3. Change in effect #1 shell temperature indicating abnormal cooling water flow.
4. Loss of vacuum indicated by an increase in the pressure indicator effect #2.
5. Steam flows to and from re-boiler.
Operational Checks
1. Check all air supply pressures. Check for air leaks at connections.
2. Physically inspect major components.
3. Blow out and clean all strainers at intervals.
4. Maintain calibration of instruments for proper flow rates and pressures of
various flows.
5. Clean and inspect all gauges and thermometers for accuracy.
6. Every 2500 hours of operation, switch ejectors so that the ejector that is on
standby can be used and check the one that is in use and clean its strainer.
7. Watch for evidence of leaking at retaining bolts, flanges, instruments and
valve connections. Inspect all piping for evidence of leakage, which might
reduce vacuum. Check for discoloration of insulating materials, which might
indicate hidden leaks in the evaporator shell.
8. Check for any motor or pump overheating. Inspect gland seal leakage.
9. Enter any problems found in the maintenance log.
10.Check pH of re-boiler every 8 hours. The pH should be maintained in the
range of 9.5 to 11. Caustic should be injected into the re-boiler at intervals,
to maintain the required pH.
Operating Records
in addition to all readings and recorder charts, it is recommended
that other operational data be kept on a suitable log sheet.
Complete records should be kept on all equipment. An analysis of
all data should be made periodically, this will help in determining a
maintenance schedule.
The following information should be logged after each start-up,
before each shutdown and at least once during each 8 hours of
operation:
1. Time and date of start-up of shutdown.
2. Total hours of operation.
3. Distillation production.
4. Time, date and type of acid cleaning.
5. All pressure and temperature reading.
6. All maintenance performed.
7. Amount of feed treatment chemicals used.
8. Re-boiler pH.
SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
This Aqua-Chem desalting plant is designed for long term continuous operation. Unless it is
foreseen that there will be a reduction in the need for distillate for a long period, shut down,
except for necessary preventive maintenance, is not recommended. Securing procedures for
a shut down are as follows, (these procedures apply to operations where either the reboiler or
alternate steam is supplying steam to the thermal-compressor)..
1. Switch distillate to Dump position on control panel.
2. Open V-64 and shut V-128 and V-129, to allow condensate to bypass Sanitizing heater.
3. Open V-125 and V-126, then shut V-123, V-124 and V-37 to allow distillate to bypass
Sanitizing heater and Distillate Cooler.
4. Open V-135 after condenser drain to waste and shut V-134 after condenser drain to
distillate sump.
5. Secure high pressure steam to re-boiler by closing V-56 (PCV-4 Isolation Valve) or V-89
(PCV-6 isolation valve) and V-90 when alternate steam to the thermal-compressor is used.

6. Using HC-5, close PCV-5 (steam to thermal-compressor) and secure operating steam
ejector valve (s) V-47 and/or V-48 and open V-129 (after condenser vent to atmosphere).
7. Secure re-boiler make up pump when pressure in re-boiler reaches 100 psig or less.
8. When effect #1 shell temperature cools to 130oF, secure chemical injection system.
9. Close LCV-5 condensate to storage and V-54 desuperheater supply water.
10. After re-boiler pressure (PI-13) reaches zero, brine transfer, blow-down and distillate
pumps can be secured, along with seawater feed (FCV-6) control valve.
11. Shut off instrument air and open all required drain valves.
NOTE: One of the main causes of corrosion to the vessel interior is air allowed into the
vessel. therefore, this should be avoided or minimized. When shutting the unit down for more
than a brief time, flush it out with fresh water. Do not let water, (especially water containing
chlorine), remain in the tubes.
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
There are six main events that could occur which would necessitate an
emergency shut down.
These are:

1. Loss of all electrical power.

2. Loss of inlet seawater.
3. Loss of ejector steam.
4. Loss of high pressure steam.
5. Loss of instrument air.
6. Loss of service air.

Although physical damage can occur as the result of any of the above events,
the following procedure should minimize the problem. If an emergency
condition occurs, perform the required emergency action as quickly as
possible.
EMERGENCY ACTION REQUIRED
A. Loss of all electrical power
1. Immediately close FCV-5 or PCV-6 as applicable.
2. Immediately shut off steam supply valves to ejectors V-47 and V-48.
NOTE. Only perform action #2 if there is no seawater inlet flow.
3. Shut down plant if power cannot be regained shortly.
B. Loss of ejector steam
1. Secure suction valves to ejectors to save plant vacuum.
2. Shut down plant as under normal shut down if ejector steam supply is
interrupted more than 15 min.
C. Loss of inlet sea water
1. Immediately secure steam to ejectors. The ejectors must never be operated
without cooling water to the condenser.
2. Secure steam from re-boiler to thermal compressor.
3. Secure the plant as a normal shutdown.
D. Loss of steam to re-boiler
1. Secure ejector suction valves to maintain vacuum.
2. Proceed with normal shutdown.
E. Loss of instrument air
1. Secure high pressure steam to thermal-compressor and ejectors.
2. Put level controllers on manual control.
3. Proceed with normal shutdown.
PUMPS TROUBLE CHECK LIST

A. No water delivered
1. Priming - casing and suction pipe not completely filled with liquid.
2. Speed too low. *
3. Discharge head too high. Check total head (particularly friction loss).
4. Suction lift too high (suction pipe may be too small or long, causing
excessive friction loss). Check with gauge.
5. Impeller or suction pipe or opening completely plugged.
6. Wrong direction of rotation.
7. Air pocket in suction line.
8. Stuffing box packing worn or water seal plugged allowing leakage of air into
pump casing.
9. Air leak in suction line.
10.Not enough suction head for hot water or volatile liquids. Check carefully as
this is a frequent cause of trouble on such service.
B. Not enough water delivered
1. Priming - casing and suction pipe not completely filled with liquid.
2. Speed too low.
3. Discharge head higher then anticipated. Check total head (particularly friction
loss).
4. Suction lift too high (suction pipe may be too small or long, causing excessive
friction loss). Check with gauge.
5. Impeller or suction pipe or opening partially plugged.
6. Wrong direction of rotation.
7. Air pocket in suction line.
8. Stuffing box packing worn - or water seal plugged - allowing leakage or air
into pump casing.
9. Air leak in suction line.
10. Not enough suction head for hot water or volatile liquids. Cheek carefully as

this is a frequent cause of trouble on such service.

11. Foot valve too small.
12. Foot valve not immersed deeply enough.
13. Mechanical defects:
- Wearing rings worn.
- Impeller damaged.
- Casing gasket defective.
C. Not enough pressure
1. Speed too low. *
2. Air in water.
3. Impeller diameter may be too small.
4. Mechanical defects:
- Wearing rings worn.
- Impeller damaged.
- Casing gasket defective.
5. Wrong direction of rotation.
6. Be sure pressure gauge is in correct place on discharge nozzle of pump and
not on top of easing.
D. Pump works a while and then quits
1. Leaky suction line.
2. Stuffing box packing worn - or water seal plugged - allowing leakage of air
into pump casing.
3. Air pocket in suction line.
4. Not enough suction head for hot water or volatile liquids. Check carefully as
this is a frequent cause of trouble on such service.
5. Air or gases in liquid.
6. Suction lift too high (suction pipe may be too small or long, causing
excessive friction loss). Check with gauge.
7. Impeller plugged.
E. pump takes too much power
1. Speed too high. *
2. Head lower than rating, pumps too much water flow rate.
3. Liquid heavier than water. Check viscosity and specific gravity.
4. Mechanical defects:
- Shaft bent.
- Rotating element binds.
- Stuffing boxes too tight.
- Pump and driving unit misaligned.
5. Wrong direction of rotation. *
F. Pump leaks excessively at stuffing box
1. Packing is worn or not properly lubricated.
2. Packing is incorrectly inserted or not properly run in.
3. Packing is not right kind for liquid handled.
4. Sleeves scored.
G. Pump is noisy
1. Hydraulic noise - cavitations, suction lift too high. Check with gauge.
2. Mechanical defects:
- Shaft bent.
- Rotating parts bind, are loose or broken.
- Bearing worn out.
- Pump and driving unit misaligned.
* When connected to electric motors, check whether motor wiring is correct and receives
full voltage. When connected to steam turbines, make sure that turbine receives full
steam pressure.
 OPERATION DIFFICULTIES
_____________________________________________________________________
PROBLEM PROBABLE CAUSES
_____________________________________________________________________
No Delivery 1. Motor not running
2. Supply tank empty
3. Connecting rod pins broken
4. Eccentric pin sheared
5. Line clogged or valves closed
6. Check valves held open with foreign material
7. Vapour locked or prime lost
8. Strainer clogged
______________________________________________________________________
Pump loses oil 1. Diaphragm broken
2. Oil seal leaks
3. Cover gasket leaks
4. Pump head gasket leaks
______________________________________________________________________
Noisy gearing or knocking noise 1. Discharge pressure too high.
2. Water hammer from long or too small piping.
3. Worn bearings.
4. Worn gears or connecting rods.
5. Play in worm shaft.
6. Eccentric or worm gear loose on shaft.
7. Pressure relief valve set too high.
Delivery gradually drops 1. Stroke adjustment creeping
2. Vacuum compensator valve set too tight
3. Foreign material builds up in check valves

4. Leak in inlet line

5. Pressure relief valve set too low
6. Strainer fouled
______________________________________________________________________
Delivery erratic 1. Leak in inlet line
2. Product vaporizing or cavitating
3. Entrained air or gas in product
4. Vacuum compensator valve set too tight
5. Motor speed erratic
6. Fouled valves
______________________________________________________________________
Delivery higher than rated 1. Suction pressure higher than discharge
2. Pipe size too small
3. Back pressure valve not set high enough
4. Back pressure valve leaks
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Low Delivery 1. Motor speed too low
2. Valves worn or dirty
3. Pressure relief valve opening on each stroke
4. Vacuum compensator valve set too loose or too tight
5. Calibration system error
6. Viscosity product too high
7. Cavitations
______________________________________________________________________
Air continuously bleeds 1. Vacuum compensator valve set too tight
from air vent 2. Oil level in reservoir too low
3. Pressure relief valve blowing off continuously
4. Diaphragm over stressed
5. Inlet pressure too low
6. Breakdown of oil, temperature high
______________________________________________________________________

Piping noisy 1. Pipe size too small

2. Pipe runs too long
3. Surge chambers full of liquid
4. No surge chambers used
______________________________________________________________________
DESALINATION PERFORMANCE
Performance of Desalination Units in Area II
The performance of each of the MSF units located in area II is evaluated
according to the following performance criteria:
• Performance Ration or Gained output ratio (PR) defined by
PR = Md/Mc= (Kg distillate water)/(Kg steam used in brine heater)
Alternatively, the inverse of (PR) gives the specific steam consumption,
(Kg steam consumed)/(Kg of distillate produced).
• Recovery ratio (RR) defined as the ratio of water produced to the amount of
feed seawater.
• Thermal efficiency (µE) which is the percentage of designed specific
heat consumption to the actual specific heat consumption, i.e.
µE= (H.p) design / (H.p) actual
Where: H.p = ms x (Hv - HL)
Hv = enthalpy of steam at 130°C and 3.5 atm (KJ/Kg).
HL = enthalpy condensate water leaving brine heater at 120oC(KJ/Kg)

= Hd + ms x CP x ∆T (sensible cooling).
Hd = enthalpy of condensate at 130°C (KJ/Kg).
ms = mass flow rate of steam (Kg/hr).
∆T = 130°C- 120°C
Cp = specific heat of water (4.18 KJ/Kg °C)
From these, it can be deduced that µE = (PR) actual / (PR) design
• Plant Capacity factor given by
Plant capacity factor = capacity factor (CF) x availability factor (AF)
where, CF = (actual production rate) / (design rate)
AF = (hours actually operated) / (total hours available for
operation)
The plant capacity factor is an index of performance or is a measure of
actual plant performance, i.e
Actual production rate = design capacity X plant factor.
• The evaluation of the above parameters was based on available operating
data of the desalination units and the designed values are determined based
on the fact that each unit has a planned shutdown of 4 week per year (90%
availability). The evaluation covers the last two years of operation, namely
year 1999 and year 2000. The data are presented in Tables U1 - U7
showing actual production rates of distillate water, steam consumption and
performance factors. The data are also depicted as plots in Figs F1 – F8 for
each unit which show the variations with respect to designed values.
• Figs 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8 illustrate the distribution of the desalination capacity of
the units according to design and those during realized in years 1999 and
2000 respectively. As can be seen, the units almost share the same
production capacity a part from unit 4, which is showing a decline in its
production capacity during the year 2000.
Figs 1.9 and 1.10 show the total outage hours of the units in years 1999 and 2000 respectively. As
can be seen in year 1999, the forced shutdown hours are much more than the designed shutdown
hours as recommended by the manufacturer and the planned shutdown hours suggested by the
owner. However, in year 2000, the situation has improved and this is, obviously, due to long hours
of maintenance and repairs carried out on the unit in the previous year.
The results of the evaluation of the performance of the units in Area II are given in
details in Table (U1-U7) and Figs (Fl-F2). Table 1.3 presents the average values of
performance factors taken over a period of one year. It should be noted that the data of this table
are based on plant availability only in that year (i.e. shutdown months were excluded from these
averages).
An inspection of the tables and plots indicates the following:
• The units are operating below their designed capacities with annual average plant factors
ranging from 0.33 to 0.76 over the years 1999 and 2000. The deficit in the amount of
water produced is about 33% in the year 1999 and 27% in the year 2000, as shown by the
bar chart in fig 1.4. This indicates the rather low performance of the desalination units over
these two years.
• The plant factors are affected by the availability of the units for operation. The production
rate, and therefore the capacity factors, drops when a unit is not in service or it is not on
100% mode of operation as the data indicate.
• The units exhibit a marked loss of operation hours. The total outage hours in the year 1999
ranges from 15% to 37% of the total running hours, whereas in the year 2000 this varies
between 7% and 21%, apart from unit 4 which exhibits about 57% loss of operating hours.
These are illustrated by the bar charts depicted in figs 1.9 and 1.10.
• Excessive steam consumption is exhibited by all units. This represents a variation of 13% to
27% (average 20%) of the designed value, which is relatively high.
• Performance ratio, PR (or the gained output ratio, GOR) of all units is below their designed
values. These are affected by the production capacity factors of the units as well as by
steam consumption. The PR of a unit is a measure of its thermal efficiency (µE =
((GOR)actual / (GOR)design) and therefore the thermal efficiency '6f the units is rather low and
as the data indicate, µE is ranging between 80% and 87%.
• Due to lack of data regarding seawater intake, the recovery ratio, RR, has not been
evaluated and therefore a comparison with the designed value (RRdesign= 0.43) is not
possible at present. It should be recognized that higher values of RR (i.e. close to RRdesign)
are favorable, an indication of high conversion of seawater to fresh water.
• The full drop of all performance measures (PR, CF, PF, AF, and µE) noted with some of the
units during the two years of operation is only due to unit (forced or planned) outage
properly for repair and maintenance.
• The high performance exhibited by Unit 4 in the year 2000 (i.e. µE=96%) seems unrealistic.
An inspection of Table U4 shows negative steam consumptions, implying that the unit is
consuming less steam than actually needed by design, possibly the data are incorrect.
CORROSION IN DESALINATION PLANTS
CORROSION IN SALINE WATER SYSTEMS
While in normal operation the saline feed-water is deaerated and hence mild
steel can used providing a modest corrosion allowance is made when
designing evaporator shells. If such a plant is shut down for extended periods
without special safeguard severe attack of the steelwork will occur. Following
shutdown, draining of the vessels, washing with distillate and drying with hot air
would do much to alleviate attack and inert gas blanketing would provide
further protection. Vertical tube evaporators can be drained more simply than
multi-stage flash plants. Sediment which collects in the bottom of flash
chambers may prove troublesome and dictate a design which will permit
simpler draining.

Corrosion / erosion processes

The effects of corrosion alone or in combination with erosion are a constant
hazard in sea-water distillation plants. Two types of conditions are encountered
- cold aerated sea water and hot 'deaerated' sea-water brine. Each condition
requires special provision for the prevention and control of corrosion. Before
discussing these methods, the corrosion processes and the accompanying
effects which may be encountered in distillation plants are briefly discussed.
General corrosion
This is approximately uniform metal removal not accompanied by localized
action such as pitting, cracking or erosion. The cause is electrochemical in
nature. All industrial metals have heterogeneities of some form such as slag
inclusions, mill scale, and localized stresses. These inhomogeneities form local
anodic and cathodic areas within the same piece of metal; consequently metal
ions are removed at the anode when the metal is immersed in an electrolyte.
The metal heterogeneities and the accompanying electrochemical corrosion
cause a constant shifting of the anodic and cathodic areas in the exposed
surfaces so that uniform corrosion results. The corrosion of ferrous compounds
such as iron and steel is a pertinent example. The presence of an aqueous
solution and oxygen is essential and the presence of carbon dioxide and
metallic salts will accelerate the process. The inhomogeneities in the wetted
metal surface form a series of short circuited electrochemical cells. At the
anode atoms of metallic iron lose two electrons and enter the solution as Fe++
At the cathode, water provides both hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, H+ and OH ­
respectively. The electrons from the anode combine with the hydrogen ions to
yield hydrogen gas, thus 2e + 2H+ = H2. In the presence of oxygen the
hydrogen is oxidized to water and the metallic ions combine with the hydroxyl
ions. Thus Fe++ + 2OH- = Fe (OH)2 ferric hydroxide which in the presence of
carbon dioxide, hydrolyses to form hydrated ferric oxide or rust. The rate of
corrosion of steel is governed by the diffusion of oxygen to the metal surface,
thus moving aerated sea water is an ideal corrosive medium as it supplies fresh
oxygen to the cathode. General corrosion can be tolerated as corrosion rates
are of the order 0.012 cm (0.005 in) penetration per year, in aerated sea water.
Hence a corrosion allowance of 1 cm is a very adequate corrosion allowance
for a 25-year life in brine vessels operating at temperatures below 200oF.
Galvanic corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in contact in an electrolyte the less noble, i.e.
anodic, of the two corrodes because of the flow of electrons resulting from the
electropotential difference between the two metals. The following metals form a
galvanic series in sea water.
- Galvanized wrought iron
- Mild steel Cast iron
- Ni-resist
- Manganese bronze
- Admiralty brass
- Copper
- 70/30 Cupro nickel
- 18/8 Stainless steel
- Nickel.
The most anodic is first, i.e. the metal which is joined with any succeeding
metal in the series will form the anode and corrode. The severity of galvanic
corrosion depends on both the difference in electropotential between the
materials and the respective surface areas involved. If the area of the cathodic
metal is large compared with that of the anodic metal, the severity of the
corrosion is much greater. These electrolytic effects are often severe in water
boxes where there are large concentrations of non-ferrous surfaces such as
the heat exchanger tubing. Where this is so a sacrificial anode may be used to
protect the tube plates.
Localized corrosion
Pitting is one of the most severe forms of localized corrosion. It can occur very
rapidly due to the local failure of the protective oxide film which forms on certain
metals such as stainless steels. When the protective film is broken a corrosion
cell is set up which does not move and rapid corrosion occurs at the anode.
This form of corrosion is common in aluminum and stainless steel alloys in the
presence of metal chlorides. Its extremely severe in a sea-water environment.
Impingement and cavitation corrosion
Impingement or erosion corrosion results when a moving fluid removes
protective films from metal surfaces faster than they can reform. Thus in areas
where there are flow obstructions and high eddy velocities such as the tube
inlets of a water box. In pumps cavitations can occur, i.e. swarms of vapour
bubbles are formed and collapse with an associated impact on metal surfaces.
The result of this continual impacting can be spectacular failure in the
components involved.
Corrosion caused by polluted sea water
Various other forms of corrosion can be encountered in desalination plants.
One example is copper attack which may be coupled with intergranular
corrosion where a polluted sea-water feed is used which may contain sewage.
Decomposition of the contaminants reduces the oxygen content of the water
and gives rise to sulphide and ammonium compounds in solution.
The reduction in oxygen content severely reduces the film-forming properties of
the tube materials and the sulphides and ammonium compounds give rise to an
aggressive feed. This type of feed attacks the copper base alloys and in the
case of aluminum brass severe intergranular corrosion can occur where the
grain boundaries of the alloy are anodic to the grain bulk.
Bacterial corrosion
In the metabolism of any living organism, there is energy intake and an energy
release. In some bacteria these energy changes result in a measurable electric
current. When corrosion-causing organisms reproduce on the surface of an
iron pipe, electrobiochemical removal of iron takes place.
Micro-organisms then, can participate in iron and steel corrosion by creating
favourable conditions for electrochemical reaction to take place. One
mechanism is the changing of a surface film resistance with metabolic products
such as sulphuric or organic acids. In other instances slime deposits can form
in selected areas so that they become anaerobic. If oxygen is present in
solution the anaerobic sites become anodic to the aerobic areas.
When two portions of the same metal receive oxygen at different rates, a
corrosion cell is established and two types of oxidation can take place -
dehydrogenation and loss of electrons.
The hydrogen atom dissociates into a proton and an electron. Electrons are
transported by an electron-carrying system and pass through the corroding
metal to the cathodes; where each electron displaces a positive ion, usually
hydrogen. The positive metal ions formed at the anodes go into solution.
Sulphate reducers
The sulphate reducers are the most important corrosion-causing bacteria. They use the sulphate ion
as the terminal electron accepter for respiration. They obtain energy by the reduction of the sulphate
ion by hydrogen which comes from molecular hydrogen or organic compounds. By virtue of their
metabolism the organisms use molecular hydrogen and produce H2S. Corrosion is by cathodic
depolarization and is increased by the organisms' consumption of hydrogen.
Equations (3.9) to (3.13) below illustrate the chemical reactions which take place.
Anodic: 8H2O 8H+ + 8(OH)- (3.9)
4Fe + 8H+ 4Fe++8H (3.10)
Cathodic depolarization (bacteria):
S04 + 12H H2S + 2H2 + 2H20 + 2(OH)- (3.11)
Corrosion products: Fe++ + H2 S FeS + 2H+ (3.12)
3Fe+++ + 9(OH) 3Fe(OH)3 (3.13)
As equations (3.9) to (3.13) show, the result is the continuous removal of iron from the anodic areas
and pitting takes place. FeS is cathodic to metallic iron and its presence accelerates corrosion.
Other bacteria can oxidize H2S for their metabolic energy supply as shown in equations (3.14) and
(3.15).
2H2 S + O2 --> 2S + 2H2 O (3.14)
2S + 3O2 + 2H2O --> 2H2 SO4 (3.15)
The H2SO4 produced is highly corrosive and forms an anodic concentration cell that further
accelerates corrosion (a pH of 0.2 has been measured).
Another class of bacteria commonly termed `iron bacteria' converts ferrous oxide to ferric hydroxide for
their energy source. The ferric hydroxide covers the organisms which deposit on pipe walls creating
areas of ferric hydroxide. The anaerobic conditions created provide ideal growth conditions for
sulphate-reducing bacteria. The continued production of iron enables additional iron bacteria to grow
on the deposits. The cycle is repeated and severe pitting may result.
Bacterial action can be stopped by eliminating the conditions suitable for their growth. This, however,
is often impossible if, for example, their nutrients come in the feed-water. Resort must be made to
toxicants to control the organisms, eradication being impossible if the feed contains their food supply.
Usually chlorine dosing of the feed is a sufficient treatment. There are lists of various biocides and
discusses their effectiveness.
Corrosion prevention
From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that many factors conducive to
corrosion/corrosion-erosion are present in desalination plants. The methods which
are used to prevent or reduce its occurrence may be summarized as:
1. Removal of corrosive agents in the feed
2. Avoidance of electrolytic cells
3. Protective coatings
4. Proper materials selection.
1. Removal of corrosive agents
The two main corrosive components in the sea-water feed are dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Removal can be either of two ways. One method is to use a vacuum
desorption tower where the feed is sprayed in at the top and allowed to partially
flash. This removes most of the oxygen and carbon dioxide along with some vapour.
This type of unit is expensive as the materials used must be corrosion resistant or
heavily protected.
A more common approach is to separate the oxygen and CO2 desorption duties. If
the feed is acid-treated it will be rich in CO2 and is fed to an atmospheric pressure
stripping tower. This consists of a packed column with the feed trickling downwards
in counter-current contact with a stream of air drawn upwards by induced draught
fans. The CO2 is virtually completely removed by this method and for an evaporator
plant the feed is sent to the heat rejection section which operates at very low
pressures and is injected into an appropriate high vacuum stage for deaeration in the
stage itself. A separate deaerator can of course be used for installations where this
method is inappropriate.
With the CO2 and dissolved oxygen removed, the feed corrosive properties are
greatly reduced and it can be circulated around the plant without further treatment.
The pH should be 7.5 to 8 to prevent the circulation of dilute acid solutions.
2. Avoidance of electrolytic cells
Electrolytic effects predominate in water boxes where there are large non-
ferrous concentrations such as tube banks and tube sheets. In cases where the
water boxes are rubber-lined soft iron sacrificial anodes are fitted to produce
iron in solution for the protection of the non-ferrous tubes. The method of using
of impressed current protection for tubes in general is also applied.
3. Protective coatings
This is a common method of mitigating the effects of corrosion. In brine vessels
operating above 93°C (200°F) common practice is to use copper-clad steel
sheeting. Where the sea water is below 49°C (120°F) and aerated, feed lines
and brine vessels are often cement-lined carbon steel or tar mastic to prevent
oxygen access to the steel surface. Rubber linings are often used in water
boxes. Where corrosion­erosion is expected to be more severe, such as ends
of heat exchanger tubes, plastic inserts are occasionally used. More
information in protective coatings is given in Table 3.4.
4. Materials selection
This is obviously of the utmost importance and is best illustrated in tubular
form. Two tables are given. Table 3.3 gives the relative cost ranking for 2.54
cm (1 in) diameter 0.122 cm thick (18 s.w.g.) non-ferrous tubing subject to hot
high velocity sea water and comments on its applicability in various corrosion-
erosion situations. Attention has been focused on the heat exchanger tubing as
35-45 per cent of most large distillation plant capital costs are attributable to the
heat transfer surface.
Table 3.4 summarizes the principal items of equipment found in evaporation
plants and the range of duties adjudged suitable.

So far most distillation plants have been built with the cheapest available
materials consistent with `reasonable' life expectancy. This has led to carbon
steel chambers which have later had to be replaced by stainless steel cladding.
Tubing made from aluminum brass was replaced with 90/ 10 Cu Ni. Briefly,
carbon steel alone should not be used at temperatures above 93°C (200°F).
The practice of using low-cost materials with their attendant corrosion problems
has dominated distillation plant design. The alternative route of avoiding
corrosion by the use of more costly materials is not popular but a body of
opinion is now behind this approach. Serious corrosion of low carbon steel in
sea-water brine temperatures above 93°C (200°F) has been found in many
plants. Protective coatings also appear to be of little use and one can expect
future plants to have much more attention paid to materials selection in view of
the accumulation of operating experience now at hand
CORROSION IN DESALINATED WATER SYSTEMS
The introduction of desalinated water into piped distribution systems has brought with it
problems relating to the protection of pipelines against corrosion as well as the suitability
of the product for human consumption.
The technical considerations involved in dealing with these problems are presented in
this part.
Corrosion mechanisms
The water produced by distillation and most other types of desalination plant is very
corrosive due to the absence of natural inhibitors and, unless chilled, tastes `flat' to most
palates. It therefore requires suitable treatment when supplied for domestic use through
normal supply systems.
Two main types of corrosion can occur when such water is brought into contact with
metals, due either to hydrogen evolution or oxygen absorption. The effluent from
distillers may contain fair quantities of carbon dioxide due to the decomposition at
distillation temperatures of the bicarbonates which are normally present in highly
mineralized sources, such as sea water or brackish waters.
The presence of carbon dioxide can depress the pH of the water to a point low enough
to enable `hydrogen evolution' corrosion to occur, provided that the metal stands below
hydrogen in the Table of Normal Potentials. This can be likened to the reaction which
takes place when base metals are placed in dilute acids, since water and carbon dioxide
form the weak carbonic acid thus:
H2O + CO2 H2 CO3
Water Carbon dioxide Carbonic acid (7.7)
The depression of the pH value is caused by the dissociation of carbonic acid into H+
and C03-- ions which upset the balance of H+ and 0H- ions normally present in equal
quantities in pure water free from carbon dioxide.
Metal ions tend to go into solution, leaving electrons behind in the metal. This process would
soon come to a halt due to the potential difference that is thereby set up between the liquid
and the metal unless the electrons can be removed from the metal. Electron removal is
effected by the positive H+ ions, from the dissociated carbonic acid, which migrate to the
negatively charged metal and are discharged electrically as hydrogen gas thus:
2H+ + 2e H2
Hydrogen ions Electrons Hydrogen gas (7.8)
The point at which the metal ions go into solution and the point at which the electrons emerge
may be described as the anode and cathode of an electrolytic cell. Under certain conditions
the formation of atomic rather than molecular hydrogen can give rise to polarization, which
means that the electrolytic cell produces sufficient hydrogen to blanket out any further action
and corrosion ceases. Dissolved oxygen, however, soon removes this film and corrosion
proceeds.
In the absence of carbon dioxide but in the presence of oxygen, electrons are removed from
the cathodic parts of the metal by the formation of hydroxyl ions thus:
O2 + 2H2 O + 4e 40H (7.9)
Oxygen Water Electrons Hydroxyl ions
The hydroxyl ions will unite in solution with the metal ions and produce a metallic hydroxide
which, if insoluble, will be deposited at the cathode of the corrosion cell and tend to stifle
further corrosion. In the case of iron, ferrous hydroxide and, if sufficient oxygen is present,
ferric hydroxide will be formed, both of which are sparingly soluble; the higher oxide being
less soluble than the ferrous form. Neither form entirely stifles corrosion partly owing to their
porosity, although the ferric form is a better inhibitor than the ferrous form.
Normally carbon dioxide and oxygen are present together and if the carbon dioxide
predominates it will convert any ferrous hydroxide formed into soluble ferrous bicarbonate
which will remain in solution until such time as sufficient oxygen is available to convert it into
soluble ferric hydroxide. In the case of a water pipe this will probably occur some distance
from the site of the corrosion cell and therefore exert no inhibiting effect.
Corrosion control
Removal of carbon dioxide and oxygen is the obvious answer to the problem but
unfortunately this is only possible in a totally enclosed system free from
atmospheric contamination such as a high-pressure boiler feed system which is
impracticable for domestic systems.
An alternative answer is to add an inhibitor to the water to form a protective film
on the metal. Several inhibitors are available but the choice is narrowed when the
water is required for domestic use since the inhibitor must be of proven suitability
for human consumption.
An obvious choice is the inhibitor found in most natural waters-calcium
bicarbonate.
The presence of sufficient calcium bicarbonate in the water will, under certain
conditions, cause the film of corrosion produced - which is laid down in untreated
waters in the presence of oxygen - to be modified from the porous hydrated oxide
to a `chalky rust', due to the local precipitation of calcium carbonate. This deposit
very effectively inhibits the electrolytic action and corrosion virtually ceases.
An aqueous solution of calcium bicarbonate contains four kinds of carbon dioxide
1. The CO2 which forms part of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
2. The CO2 needed to convert CaCO3 to Ca (HCO3)2 (calcium
bicarbonate)
3. The CO2 needed to stabilize the Ca (HCO3)2
4. Any other CO2 present which is generally termed the aggressive CO2 or, as

it is in solution, carbonic acid.

Aggressive CO2 will tend to dissolve any CaCO3 with which it comes into
contact and prevent the deposition of a protective film.
The aggressive CO2 can be removed by passing the water through a bed of
marble chips or similar material. This also introduces calcium bicarbonate into
the water although the amount introduced does of course depend upon the
amount of CO2 available.
Most modem distillation plants work at low pressure and produce a distillate
with a low CO2 content which is insufficient to dissolve the necessary amount
of calcium carbonate to prevent corrosion. In order to obtain sufficient
bicarbonate ions to form a reasonable film, CO2 gas has to be added to the
water before it is passed through the beds of marble chips. A very long contact
time is necessary to obtain good results and optimum conditions are difficult to
maintain,
By-passing some of the raw water round the desalination plant is sometimes
practiced but although it improves the palatability of the water it does not
prevent corrosion because of the adverse ratio of sodium chloride to calcium
bicarbonate present in most waters which require desalting.
The conditions under which the desired type of film is laid down are governed
by the alkalinity and the CO2 content of the water, always provided that
approximately 50 mg/l of the alkalinity is present as calcium bicarbonate (see
Fig. 7.7).
Fig.(7.7)
Since the free CO2 content is almost entirely dependent upon the alkalinity and
the pH, we can produce a graph (Fig. 7.8) which shows the ability of the water
to produce a protective film as a function of the alkalinity and the pH. Protective
films of `chalky rust' are only formed from bicarbonate waters if the carbon
dioxide content is limited to the amount needed to stabilize the bicarbonate so
that the smallest rise in pH (caused by production of OH- ions at the electrolytic
cell cathode) is sufficient to render the liquid next to the metal super-saturated
with calcium carbonate. It may be thought that any water containing a fair
quantity of calcium bicarbonate and having less carbon dioxide than would
correspond to equilibrium is non-corrosive but this may not necessarily be true.
A water which deposits calcium carbonate as a precipitate through dissociation
of unstable calcium bicarbonate and not as a coating on the metal through
cathodic reaction is by no means non-corrosive. The precipitate instead of
preventing attack could possibly intensify it by causing differential aeration
corrosion cells.
From the foregoing, it would appear that the best means of preventing
corrosion would be to add calcium bicarbonate, remove the C02 and adjust the
pH and total alkalinity to the appropriate value for laying down a protective film.
While doing this, it would be an obvious advantage if some chemicals could be
added to the desalted water to make it more palatable and if possible to make it
taste like natural water. A commonly adopted system for corrosion control and
palatability is shown in Fig. 7.9.
Fig.(7.8)
The calcium bicarbonate is introduced by dosing the water with calcium
chloride and sodium bicarbonate which, in solution, are converted to calcium
bicarbonate for corrosion control and sodium chloride for palatability thus:
CaC12 + 2NaHCO3 Ca (HCO3)2 + 2NaC1
Calcium Sodium Calcium Sodium (7.10)

chloride bicarbonate bicarbonate chloride

A little sodium carbonate is also added to adjust the pH to a suitable level and
to remove any aggressive carbon dioxide as follows:
Na 2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2NaHCO3
Sodium Carbon Water Sodium (7.11)
carbonate dioxide bicarbonate
In the presence of calcium bicarbonate the reaction would proceed thus:
Ca (HCO3)2 + Na CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Calcium Sodium Carbon Water
bicarbonate carbonate dioxide
CaCO3 + 4NaHCO3
Calcium Sodium
carbonate bicarbonate
At the same time the water is chlorinated to kill any organisms which could
possibly survive the desalting process.
The water is subsequently dechlorinated and can, by the same apparatus, be
conditioned with sodium silicate.
The role of sodium silicate as a corrosion inhibitor has been studied by many workers
and there is some divergence of opinion regarding the actual mechanism of the
formation of the protective film. Studies have shown that sodium silicate, in fairly dilute
solutions, forms a mixture of ionic and colloidal silica, the two forms being in equilibrium
and instantaneously self-adjusting at low concentrations. Upon formation of solid
corrosion products the silica is absorbed or chemi-absorbed by this product to form a
thin, self-healing, protective film that does not grow in thickness, consisting of
amorphous silica gel together with enmeshed iron oxide and other constituents of the
water. The film may be pictured as a two-layer deposit without a sharp dividing line. The
lower layer consists of the initial corrosion products. The upper layer is a mixture of an
absorption compound of silica and the metal hydroxides enmeshed with silica gel which
has extracted small quantities of the iron and calcium compounds, etc., from the water.
Only a small amount of silica is necessary to maintain the film and is generally about 8
mg/1 expressed as Si02. Film formation is faster in hot-water pipes and silica is in fact
used extensively as a corrosion inhibitor in hot water as well as cold-water systems. It is
unpredictable as an inhibitor in dematerialized water but after conditioning with calcium
bicarbonate such water is suitable for silicate treatment and this can therefore be added
as a valuable second line of defense in case of inadvertent maladjustment of the initial
conditioning treatment.
In the unlikely circumstances of totally closed system 5 mg/l oxygen are required for the
treatment to be effective. In normal circumstances the desalinated water will absorb this
amount by aeration in storage bonds or storage tanks.
For very large quantities of dematerialized water it is more economical to introduce the
required calcium bicarbonate by adding lime (Ca (OH)2) to the water, followed by carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide can be produced economically by burning propane in
underwater burners situated in a suitable tank to ensure optimum absorption. This
method is usually used in the Gulf States as the CO2 can be produced very cheaply.
The saving in running costs for large desalination installations soon pays for the higher
initial installation costs of this type of plant.
Desalination corrosion problems at Sirte Oil Company
• The corrosion of structural steels is very serious technical problems. The volume
of steel construction exposed to a corrosive environment at desalination plants is
very high, the corrosivity of the atmosphere in which most steel structures are
used is increased and the application of suitable protective systems is very
complex. Copper Nickel alloys and Titanium are widely used in desalination
plants because of their higher strength, high thermal conductivity and high
corrosion resistance. Cu/Ni generally provides higher level of impingement
corrosion resistance; 316L stainless steel provides higher level of resistance to
chloride attack.
• During the site visit to Sirte oil company at Marsa Brega we found that The
evaporators in all desalination units are made from carbon steel 20 mm
thickness; some of them are badly corroded specially at sidewalls and bottom of
the stages that are subjected to general or localized corrosion of varying
degrees.
• The condenser tubes are made from Cu/Ni (90/10) and they are leaking, in some
stages more than 16% of the tubes are plugged, if this percent exceeds 25% the
condenser has to be replaced. The attack was in the form of pitting this probably
is due to presence of dissolved CO2 in the vapor. Also the areas of inadequate
venting lead to accumulation of non-condensable gases which enhances the
corrosion process. Small sand particles escaped with the seawater intake have
caused some erosion. The condensers shells are made from carbon steel 516
Gr.60,and the tube sheets are made from Cu/Ni (90/10).
• The brine heater is exposed to the highest plant temperature up to 120 oC
Experience has shown that the tubing in this section has the highest failure rates
but when the tubes are examined they are seen to have failed by scaling or due
to damage during mechanical de-scaling, corrosion failure are rare.
• For this reason it is usual to fit 70/30 copper nickel tubing in this section because
of its higher strength and ability to withstand mechanical de-scaling and its
corrosion rate in seawater is 0.0013 mm/y. In MSF plants 70/30 Cu/Ni is often
selected for the top temperature recovery stages, especially when anti-scalants
are used, in order to resist the high concentrations of carbon dioxide and other
gases in these stages.
• Brine heater tubes at units 1,2,3&4 are made from Cu/Ni (70/30) while brine
heater tubes at units 5,6,7 are Ti tubes, brine heater shells are made from
carbon steel and tube sheets are made from Cu/Ni (90/10).
• All pipes are of carbon steel or carbon steel rubber lining or carbon steel with
cement lining and few of fibreglasses.
• The atmospheric corrosion of the external parts of carbon steel metal of
desalination units and tank roofs of chemical injection tanks was observed
because of aggressive environment around sea coast and paint damage, also
the seawater intake pipeline has some corrosion problems at the bottom side of
the unlined carbon steel pipeline. The internal cement lining damage and
bitumen wrapping of buried seawater pipelines are also damaged. Fiberglass
pipes failed due to exposure to direct sunlight.,
• The seawater corrosion and pitting problems of carbon steel inside flash
chambers at all units was avoided by cladding the evaporator internal surface
with 3mm thickness 316L stainless steel plate. More than 80% of the units are
cladded especially at bottom and sides of the evaporator.
• Scale precipitation leading to tube blockage and unit shutdown and the
mechanical cleaning of hard scale might cause tube damage.
• Patching with the same material was the only solution for body leak and this of
course has created galvanic corrosion.
Conclusions:
• The choice of type 316L stainless steel for cladding the evaporation cells
was generally adequate for controlling pitting and crevice corrosion at area
two.
• Titanium metal has been used extensively for heat exchanger tubes in MSF
type desalination plants. This is mainly due to its excellent erosion-corrosion
resistance and good heat transfer properties. During desalination process
progressive build up of scale occurs inside the tubes, and the cleaning of
tubes by de-scaling is an essential maintenance operation. Using inhibited
H2SO4 for de-scaling shows zero corrosion rates for titanium.
• The units 5,6 and 7 at area one are TVC type and the top three tube rows in
heat transfer bundles are directly below the spray nozzles are made from
high erosion corrosion resistance material 316L stainless steel. The rest of
the tubes are Cu/Ni (90/10), high amount of scale deposition on external
tube surface. Water boxes are made from carbon steel, pitting and crevice
corrosion was observed.
• Unit number 8 is MSF, the tubes are Cu/Ni (90/10) and they were replaced
due erosion and pitting, brine heater were also replaced because of tube
leaks.
• The extent of atmospheric corrosion of desalination units at area two are
much higher than area one this probably due to great chloride deposition
from wind blowing at area two which are facing directly to sea winds while
area one is protected by harbor.
Recommendations:
1- To minimize evaporator damage or failure, cladding all internal surfaces with
316L stainless steel is necessary.
2- Complete water drainage and care is needed during shut down to avoid
leaving chloride-containing water with access to oxygen.
3- Avoid mechanical cleaning of the scale to prevent mechanical damage.
4- Good anti scale dosing and monitoring.
5- Painting with special marine coating to prevent atmospheric corrosion of
carbon steel components. ,
6- Seawater intake should not contain sand to avoid erosion.
7- Outlet oxygen content of seawater should be measured more frequently and
it should be 0.0 18 mg/l.
Notes on the performance of Desalination Unit Area II&I:
Desalination Units in Area II
• The units are getting old (20 - 25 years in operation) and to keep them in good
condition only to increase maintenance and repairs costs.
• Focusing on the last two years of operation (years 1999 and 2000), all units in
this area appear to operate below their target capacities. The amount of
distillate water produced by each unit is an average 20 - 30 below the
designed capacity. Despite this deficit in water production, the present
production rate of all units (approximately 7x1590 = 111 30 m3/day) meets the
demand for fresh water in area II. This is well below the target capacity which
amounts to about 7 x2160 = 15120 m3/day based on AF=90%. This suggests
that running six units with 90% availability produce enough water that exceeds
demand.
• Apparently all units have suffered random shutdowns as indicated by monthly
availability factors (see Figs 1.6 and 1.7 for outage hours). As the
performance data show (table U1-U7), the units operate with low plant factors
(0.5 - 0.7) and two units as low as 0.35 due to low production rates and high
loss of operating hours.
• Excessive use of steam is noted with all units. This amounts, on average,
to about 20% more than actually needed. Two factors are possibly
responsible for the increased consumption of steam:
1. It is noted that all desalination units are working without thermal insulation. The
insulations have been purposely removal to have excess for leaks, which
erupt frequently on the units. To have easy excess for repairs and to avoid
corrosion, the insulations have been presently removed and consequently
more steam is needed to compensate for heat losses.
2. The units are designed for the case in which seawater intake has a
temperature of 27 °C (summer temperature), whereas in winter this
temperature drops to 15 °C. Therefore, it is expected that steam
consumption will be greater during winter to match summer conditions or to
compensate for the temperature difference between cold and hot seasons. It
is noted that this difference in temperature does not only lead to increase
steam use but also decreases water production rate (see Table B.5 and Fig
B.9, Appendix - B).
• The units' performance ratios and hence thermal efficiencies are evaluated
• and found to be lower than designed values. Low values of PR and 'E are
the result of high steam consumption and low production rates of distillate
water.
• As the data indicate, Unit 4 are consuming less steam than actually required
by design, this appears to be unrealistic and therefore it is concluded that
the data could be incorrect.
• Lack of proper data regarding seawater intake, make up and brine
blowdown, recovery ratios (RR) of the units remained uncertain. It should be
recognized that the RR is an important performance as it shows the amount
of seawater needed to produce a given amount of fresh water. With the MSF
units, the design RR value is 0.42.
• Nothing can be said about the cost of product water produced by each unit
due to absence of actual cost data, which are not available. However,
attempts have been made to estimate this cost, based on past experience,
for a selected units from area I and area II (Unit 7 from area II and Unit 3
from area I). Details are presented in the Appendix-A.
Desalination Units in Area I
The same conclusions made for desalination units in area II are applicable here
with some remarks:
• Units in area I are relatively new (12-18 years in operation), excluding Unit l which is
very old. The TVC units operating in area I are performing better than MSF units in
both area I and area II.
• Desalination Unit I (MSF type) still in operation since 1964 (now 44 years old) is
probably a burden on the company rather than on asset. As the data show, this

unit produces water 50% of target capacity. Its performance is rather poor and
only costly repairs and maintenance have kept it in working conditions. This
unit has passed service life (for MSF plants from 15 - 20 years) as well as it is
obsolete and serviceability is no longer matches that of more modem and
improved type of similar plants.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made in the light of results of this study.
• Studying the possibility of reducing top brine temperature (TBT) from 118°C to less
110°C to avoid the damaging effects of corrosion in the brine heater and first stages
in the MSF plants and due to aging of the desalination units, it is advisable to reduce
production rates to within 80-90 % of the design capacity, at the same time
increasing units availability to an average of above 85% (see Table B.6, Appendix-B).
• A detailed check is required for the design of each unit individually. An investigation
of the operation of the units is also important, possibly through computer simulation.
• From this study, we noticed that unit No.4 in area II is operating with low production
rate. The reason is not known and therefore this unit needs full investigation.
• The chemical treatment and chemical cleaning used in the desalination units need to
be evaluated with respect to cost, impact on environment and efficiency. Alternative
methods of cleaning should be considered such as ball - cleaning. The latter
technique is cheap, non-polluting and very effective in comparison with chemical
treatment.
• Due to excessive use (about a total of 168,593 Kg/month) of highly concentrated
H2SO4 (98%) in area II, it is recommended to investigate the impact of this
dangerous chemical on the environment.
• It is not advisable to run any of the desalination units with the thermal insulation
stripped off. As it is found with all units, this practice has the adverse effect of
increasing steam consumption and reducing thermal efficiency as well as creating
unstable conditions due to unsteady heat losses.
• A full study of the problems of corrosion is required for all units. The problem of
accumulation of non-condensable gases appears to be a contributing factor to
corrosion and should be investigated.
• The presence and the proper maintenance of all measuring instruments on each unit
is very important. It is noticed that most measuring devices have either been missing
or out of order. We suggest building a computerized system of measurement for
monitoring the operation of the units).
• Documentation of the operating data of the desalination units is important. This
should show records of hours of operation, outage hours, planned and forced
shutdown hours. ...etc. these information will help in the, proper evaluation of the
performance of each unit.
• The unjustifiable high consumption of steam is observed with all units. The
consumption is found to be as high as 30% of the design value; at the same time
there is a drop of, 20-25% in production rate. This requires full investigation with the
possibility that the heat transfer areas have been reduced by blocking (closing) the
leaking tubes.
• An attempt should be made to fix the temperature of feed seawater to each unit by
mixing cooling water intake seawater.
• It is advisable to conduct a daily record of seawater salinity. From the present data,
the salinity of seawater is as low as 37,000 ppm in good seasons which is expected
to reflect positively on the performance of the units, but the real situation appears to
be not like that.
• There must be enough storage capacity tanks for product water in area II rather than
pumping the water produced directly to the processing units.
• It is noticed that, occasionally loss of production which may be due to incomplete
flashing caused by changes in the level of brine water in each stage and resulting in
some entrainment of salt water with the vapour. This is highly undesirable and should
be avoided.
• It is about time that Unit No. 1 (the MSF unit in area I) is put into retirement. The unit
now is very old and considered obsolete in comparison with more technically
advanced units of similar type. The useful life of this unit has already been expired
and keeping it going is only to increase production costs because of maintenance
repairs and spare parts requirements.
• We advice that all units should operate with an availability not less than 90­-85%. This
can only be done through proper and planned maintenance. Any unit should have at
least four weeks of maintenance work. This helps in minimizing downtime, avoiding
sporadic shutdowns, improving productivity and cutting operating costs.
• It is necessary to conduct detailed economic evaluation of all units on quarterly basis.
To determine the actual cost of water and checked against recommended standard
cost. The effect of annual replacement of some equipment on the cost of water
produced should be determined. The expenses involved in each unit should be
monitored separately.
• It is necessary to perform overall unit and equipment mass and energy
balances to locate the areas of major loss and maloperation. These
checking should be done at least twice a year. On the other hand,
monitoring sheets for data collection should be prepared and distributed to
the desalination units operating staff for data collection. The data will be
used to evaluate the performance factors such as: PR (GOR), RR etc. The
results should always be checked against design and guaranteed values.
• In case the company is planning to buy new desalination units, we
recommend sticking to the same type of desalination technology (MSF and
MEE-TVC). This type desalination is superior to other type of desalination
such as RO and ED, since they can ensure enough supply of water at lower
cost. On the other hand, the company has gained good experience in
running MSF and MEE - TVC desalination units. If the company is
envisaging the replacement of any of the aging units, we recommend the
multi effect TVC type units over the MSF type due to the following features:
1. Higher thermal economy and process reliability.
2.Operate at low temperature and concentration to control scale formation.
3. Conserve fuel by operating at high thermal efficiency.
4. Use any available steam source of 0.5 to 40 bar or can be supplied with

their own steam generators.

5.They come as factory assembled and tested (i.e. as compact
packages), with all auxiliaries are easily connected to water and HP
steam or fuel lines with minimum site work.
6. They consume minimum amount of chemicals for pretreatment and scale
control. For example at Sirte Petrochemicals Complex the chemical
consumption for a single MSF unit (area II) compared with that for a TVC
unit (area I) is as follows:
• Single MSF unit: for acid cleaning it consumes:
840 Kg/day 98% H2SO4, 120 Kg/day 25% caustic soda, 24 Kg/day 50%
sodium sulfite
• Single TVC unit: for scale control only:
It consumes 10 Kg/day (Nalco 7290)
• In recent years a new version of TVC unit have become available
commercially. This is multi effect TVC type. It is a plate type evaporator/
condenser rather than a conventional tube evaporator/ condenser type. The
plate type package units have more benefits; these are
1. Simple design and long economical life.
2. Compact plate type evaporator / condenser.
3. Easy excess for service.
4. Simple raw water pre-treatment.
5. High availability, > 90% of yearly hours.
6. Full access to heating surface for manual cleaning and easy removal of
scale.
7. Low educational requirement for operating crew.
(MSFE)-DESALINATION PLANTS
MAJORPROBLEMS AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
MAJOR PROBLEMS IN (MSFE)-DESALINATION PLANTS
Most of the problems which have been observed in desalination plant operation in the
past can ultimately be traced to corrosion of materials. Such corrosion problems are a
direct result of the improper selection and application of the material, and the poor
performance of the decarbonation and deaeration of the make up water stream to
the evaporator by the designer and manufacturer of the plant. Poor operation techniques
have also caused serious corrosion as well as scaling of portions of the evaporator heat
transfer surfaces. In some plants, severe corrosion has been noticed in parts of the non-
condensable gas venting system after 3 years of operation. Therefore, these problems
were subject to extensive Research and Development programs in the past 10 years in
many countries, and considerable progress has been realized in the areas of material
selection, scale, and corrosion.
Conclusions from the R & D work are summarized below:
- A few areas of the plant are subject to major corrosion. These areas are:
(a) Water boxes,
(b) High temperature lines
(c) Low pH make up lines, and
(d) The heat exchangers of the venting system.
Corrosion resistant material should be provided for these areas.
- Other areas of the plant that have mild corrosion can be protected from corrosion by
providing an adequate corrosion allowance in the design.
- The areas where it is difficult to provide an allowance against corrosion, such as tubes
and pumps, should be constructed of suitable corrosion resistant alloys.
TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE
A troubleshooting guide is only a guide. The sequences of causes and, remedies are not
necessarily in their order of occurrence and local conditions may result in other causes
and remedies. In any case, do the easies, most obvious thing first.
 SYMPTOM - I
PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. IMPURE DISTILLATE - Poor evaporator heat balance - Determine the steam ejectors are
working properly
- Determine that all flows, temperatures,
pressures, and water level are at their
design point.

- Foaming in stages - If high organic content of feed water does not

improve itself, add antifoam compound into the
chemical feed treatment system.

- Conductivity equipment - Substitute suspected salinity cell.

malfunction

- Demister improperly installed - When shut down, carefully inspect

EACH stage demister. If the plant has
been producing good distillate, demister
inspection is not necessary unless heavy
scaling is suspected.

- Faulty stages condensing - Hydro-test shell or tubes to locate faulty tubes.

- Distillate high conductivity - Hydro-test shell or tubes to locate faulty tubes.

 SYMPTOM - II

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. HIGH OR LOW - Poor evaporator heat - Determine the steam ejectors are
BRINE LEVEL balance working properly
- Determine that all flows, temperatures,
pressures, and water level are at their
design point.

- Faulty brine pumps or - Check for leaks in pump suction lines

motors - If pumps running hot, check supply of
bearing cooling water.
- Check flow of gland seal water.

- Brine flow incorrect. - Check brine level. Troubleshoot level

controller.
 SYMPTOM - III

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. HIGH OR LOW - Poor evaporator heat - Determine the steam ejectors are
DISTILLATE LEVEL balance working properly
- Determine that all flows, temperatures,
pressures, and water level are at their
design point.

- distillate flow incorrect - Check distillate level, troubleshoot level

Controller.

- Faulty distillate pump - Check for air leakage in pump suction

or motor. Line.
- If pumps running hot, check supply of
bearing cooling water.
- Check flow of gland seal water.
- Check pump discharge pressure
 SYMPTOM - IV

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. HIGH - Level controller - Physically determine level of condensate

CONDENSATE malfunctioning
LEVEL
 SYMPTOM - V

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. POOR VACUUM - Poor evaporator heat - Determine the steam ejectors are
balance working properly.
- Determine that all flows, temperatures,
pressures, and water level are at their
design point.

- Faulty steam ejector - Determine that seam is being supplied to

Operation. the ejector at the proper pressure and
temperature.
- Check setting of seam inlet valves.

- Air leaks in evaporator - Check tightness of all piping connections

shells. to and from components.
- Hydro-test; repair leaks.

- Air leaks in vent lines - Check tightness of all piping connections.

to seam ejectors. - Inspect lines for cracks.

- Scaled evaporator and/ - Check operation of Chemical Feed

Or condenser tubes. Treatment System.
 SYMPTOM - VI

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

A. LOW DISTILLATE - High or low brine - See symptom II.

PRODUCTION level

- High or low distillate - See symptom III.

Level.

- Poor vacuum. - See symptom V.

- Pure distillate - Check operation of conductivity

dumped to waste. equipment.

- Distillate trough - Inspect trough in stage; repair leaks.

leaks.

- Scaled evaporator - Check operation of chemical feed

and condenser treatment.
heater tubes. - Acid clean tubing.
 UNIT’S TROUBLSHOOTING

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

1. DISTILLATE - Unit’s back-end temperatures are - Too much foaming inside Evaporator due
CONDUCTIVITY reversed (Make-up Temperature overflowing of Decarbonator. Inject Anti-
HIGH should be higher than Brine foam into Decarbonator for at least half an
temperature) TI-63028/63029 hour

- If the symptoms still persist and the - Start the start-up Ejector to back-up the
reversed temperatures difference is running Ejectors. Check the Brine
more than 5 oC and vacuum upset is Recirculation Pump, Brine Blowdown and
significant, steam consumption is more Distillate Pump, and Distillate Pumps’
than normal. gland cooling water lines for any blockage.

- If the symptoms sill persist. - Thoroughly body check around the UNIT
for any leaks (Vacuum-side) as well as the
Pumps’ suction pipes (BRc./BBD/DIST.)
and ejectors’ Vapour Lines (Any small body
leak can be plugged temporarily.

2.DISTILLATE - If symptoms as above are already - CONDENSER Tube leak will be suspected
CONDUCTIVITY rectified and normalized and to be determined prior to the UNIT’S
STILL HIGH Shutdown for repair. Distillate water sample
to be analyzed for verification.
 PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

3. STEAM COSUMPTION - Vacuum upset and - Ejectors to be flushed with

INCREASING MORE foaming inside the Distillate water for a
THAN NORMAL Evaporator Unit. minute; inject Anti-Foam
into Decarbonator for half-
hour.

4. CONDENSATE PUMP - Brine Heater level - Condensate Pump vapour locked;

LOST PRIMING HIGH and condensate fully closed discharge control valve
(P.63-1104) flow dropped to zero. and stop/re-start the pump for re-
priming. If still not primed, try crack
open valve of distillate water suction-
side of pump until good pumping
pressure is established.

5.BRINE CONDUCTIVITY -Brine back-up temperature higher - Increase sea water Make-up flow rate
APPROACHING 70000µs/cm than normal (40oC) and stage 12 until favorable conditions are met.
level Control valve opening is less Refer to the Production flow
than normal. rate/Make-up flow ratios (Table
Chart)

6. STEAM/CONDENSATE - HIGH conductivity of condensate -Determine if Brine Heater Tube leak is

CONDUCTIVITY IS returns to Power Station and UREA the cause of the problem. If two
HIGH(ABOVE 10 µs/cm ) Plants UNITS or more indicated HIGH
conductivity. at the same time ,then
contact Power station and Urea
Boilers to check their steam quality
(Desal. Plant’s source of steam is from
them)
 PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE ACTION TO CORRECT PROBLEM

7.CONDUCTIVITY OF - Decarbonator level and - Ensure the Make-up flow rate is steady;
DISTILLATE IS NOT stage 12 Brine level determine the Decarbonator and Brine
STABLE AND HUNTING also not stable and levels control valves are not sticky,
hunting. otherwise have them serviced by the
Instrument Technician.

8.BRINE MAKE-UP PH - Make-up pH High - Resume the H2SO4-Acid Dosing injection

INCREASED SUDDENLY Alarm (ASAH-63005) to the Decarbonator Immediately by
(MORE THAN 4.0) operating Dosing pumps (P.63-
1106/1107).If in case of failing to resume
the acid dosing to the system within 5-
minute, then immediately Shutdown by
closing steam to Brine Heater.

9. MAKE-UP WATER - Low flow alarm - Immediately re-establish normal Make-up

FLOW FAILURE Switch FSAL-63001. flow and re-start the Acid Dosing pump ,
Acid Dosing pump also also Brine level in stage 12 should not
drop too low, otherwise the unit Trip
will Trip. (Emergency shutdown).