Chapter 4

Motivation in
Organizations

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning Prepared by Charlie Cook

All rights reserved. The University of West Alabama
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.
2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives
on motivation.
3. Identify and describe the major process-based
perspectives on motivation.
4. Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–2

 The Nature of Motivation

• Motivation
– The set of forces that leads people to behave in
particular ways
• The Importance of Motivation
– Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M),
ability, and environment (E)
•P = M + A + E

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–3

 4.1 Motivational Framework

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–4

 The Motivational Framework

• How Motivational Processes Occur:

– A need is anything an individual requires or wants
– A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need
– Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying
to satisfy their need deficiencies
– Rewards and punishments are consequences of the
goal-directed behavior

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–5

 Historical Perspectives on Motivation

• The Traditional Approach

– “Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes
that employees are motivated solely by money
• The Human Relations Approach
– Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that
fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of
involvement) results in motivation
• The Human Resource Approach
– Assumes people want to make genuine contributions;
managers should encourage their participation by
providing the proper working environment conditions

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–6

 Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Need-Based Theories of Motivation
– Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
• The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)
– Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
of importance.
• Basic (or deficiency) needs
– Physiological
– Security
– Belongingness
• Growth needs
– Esteem
– Self-actualization

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–7

 4.2 The Hierarchy of Needs

Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human

Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374–396.
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–8
 Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

– Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) needs
• Assumptions:
– More than one need may motivate a person at the
same time
– Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
components imply that a person may not stay at the
same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–9

 Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)

– Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two
separate dimensions:
• Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
• Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
– Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment
once hygiene factors are addressed
– Criticisms:
• May be both method and culture bound
• Fails to account for individual differences
• Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–10

 4.3 The Dual-Structure Theory of Motivation

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–11

 Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

• Other Important Needs

– The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)
• The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than
was done in the past

– The Need for Affiliation

• The need for human companionship

– The Need for Power

• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–12

 Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Focus of Process-Based Perspectives

– Why people choose certain behavioral options to
satisfy their needs
– How people evaluate their satisfaction after they
have attained these goals

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–13

 Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• The Equity Theory of Motivation

– Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to
avoid perceived inequity
• Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in
relation to others
• Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly
in relation to others

• The Equity Comparison

– Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–14

 4.4 Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–15

 Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)

– Motivation depends on how much we want something and
how likely we think we are to get it
• Key Components
Effort-to-performance The perceived probability that effort will
expectancy lead to performance

Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance

expectancy will lead to certain outcomes

Outcome Anything that results from performing

a behavior

Valence The degree of attractiveness or

unattractiveness (value) that a particular
outcome has for a person

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–16

 4.5 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–17

 Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)

• The Porter-Lawler Model

– Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and
performance
– Assumes that:
• If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction.
• Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic
(intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–18

 4.6 The Porter-Lawler Model

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–19

 Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory
• Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants
• Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals
• Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible
• Link desired outcomes and desired performance
• Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
• Make sure the rewards are large enough
• Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–20

 Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation

• Learning
– A relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience
• How Learning Occurs
– Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
• A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response
with an unconditioned stimulus
– Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
• Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how
they learn

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–21

 Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Reinforcement Theory and Learning

– Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
– Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that
a person receives after exhibiting behavior

Negative reinforcement The opportunity to avoid or escape from an

(avoidance) unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior

Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by

eliminating a reward or desirable consequence
that follows that behavior

Punishment An unpleasant or aversive consequence that

results from behavior

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–22

 4.1 Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement

Command Groups Task Groups

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–23

 Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Social Learning in Organizations

– Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize their consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
– Conditions for social learning:
• Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively
simple
• Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not
intellectual
• Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed
behavior

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–24

 Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

– The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings
• Effectiveness of OB Mod
– Varying results in organizational applications
– Lack of “real world” use
• Ethics of OB Mod
– Individual freedom of choice
– Employee manipulation

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–25

 4.7
Steps in
Organizational

Behavior
Modification

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–26

 Organizational Behavior in Action

• After reading the chapter opening case:

– Which needs does working at Netapp fulfill for its
employees?
– Is it really possible to have an organization where
almost all employees are (or appear be) satisfied?
– What advantages does Netapp have when seeking
people for employment? Disadvantages?

© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning 4–27