NACELLES AND COWLINGS OF ENGINES.

ENGINE MOUNTS
Part 1
 NACELLES AND COWLINGS OF ENGINES

1 Purpose and components of nacelles and cowlings

The nacelle is intended to reduce aerodynamic drag and to organize
airflow ensuring cooling of an engine.
Requirements to engine nacelles are:
1. Minimal aerodynamic drag in a system of the aircraft (at working engine or inoperative one;
in view of an aerodynamic interference).
2. Rational organization of airflow for cooling an engine (propeller gear, radiator installations).
3. Good access to power plant at maintenance on ground.
4. Provision of fire safety (firewalls for fire isolation).
Components of a nacelle. Cowlings.
The nacelle usually consists of a body and cowlings. Airframe of cowlings can be frame and
panel.
In the frame schemes, strength and stiffness are formed by a framework. Removable covers
with thin skin, reinforced by load–carrying structure, are mounted to this framework.
The panel cowling consists of stiff panels connected among themselves by locks and forming
the closed load–carrying shell.
Loads from a cowling are transmitted to an engine, and through engine mounts to an aircraft.
Simultaneous attachment of the cowling to the engine and to the aircraft is prohibited. Stiff
covers of panels are made not removable, but hinging — with attachment fittings. In an open
position, special braces support the cover. For the best fit of the covers in the closed position
there are pressure–sealing parts on joints of panels.
 Airframe of nacelles for various types of engines
Nacelle of piston engines (Fig. 1) consists of spinner, cowling and casing. The
cowling is mounted to engine and consists of air intake and hinging parts. Load–
carrying elements in the casing of the nacelle carry loadings from engine mounts and
transmit them to an aircraft.

Fig. 1 shows: 1 — propeller spinner; 2 — forward ring of cowling; 3, 5, 10, 11 —

cowl panel of the nacelle; 4 — air intake of carburettor; 6, 7 — cowl flaps; 8 —
casing; 9 — firewall; 12 — side panel; 13 — frame of the nacelle; 14 — lock.
The nacelle of a turboprop (Fig. 2) consists of spinner 1, cowling 3, casing 4 and tail
part 5. The spinner serves for decreasing aerodynamic drag, shaping of the air intake
duct and protection of the propeller bush from external action.
The engine cowling consists of a fairing of propeller gear 2, air intake, load–carrying
beams and covers of the cowling. The fairing of the propeller gear is the extension of
the spinner. It represents the internal outline of air passage.
The internal part of the air intake forms external outline of the air passage. The skin
of the air intake lip is usually designed double. The annular slot between these skins
forms the chamber of the anti-icing system of air intake. Hot air is supplied to this
chamber from the compressor of engine.
Nacelles of turbojets of up–to–date airplanes as a rule are attached to the airframe
through a pylon (under wing or in the tail part of a fuselage).
Actually the nacelle usually consists of one-piece nose with the air intake, tail part
with devices of thrust reverse and hinging cowling panels in the middle part.
 2 Engine mounts
2.1. Engine mounts. General information

The engine mounts is intended to attach an engine with the units and equipment
installed on it to attachment fittings of an airframe.
From the point of view of structural mechanics engine mounts are subdivided into
truss, beam, truss-girder and frame. We should note that, in many cases truss
engine mounts are very original. For example (bypass) turbojets are frequently
attached to airframe by separate rods.
Such system provides geometrical stability only as a whole. Engine mounts are
usually designed as statically indeterminate systems. It promotes reliability and
survivability of engine mounts. However rigging of engine mounts becomes
complicated. It is necessary to keep in mind that engine is attached to engine
mounts by brackets or trunnions. They are arranged on the engine in the
strongest and the most stiff places.
(Bypass) turbojets and turboprops are usually attached to engine mounts at two
(seldom at three) supporting locations. Afterburners and extension pipes are
movably attached by the additional supporting locations.
When designing the engine mounts, it is necessary to provide access to units of
the engine (and to the equipment installed on it) for maintenance. It is also
required to provide a fast engine replacement.
Requirements to engine mounts are the following.
1. Carry all loadings from engine with the units and the equipment installed on it
under any allowable operation conditions. Thus casing of the engine must not
include in airframe of aircraft.
2. Provide specified strength and stiffness at minimal mass.
3. Absorb the vibration from engine and propeller that they were not transmitted
to an airframe of aircraft.
4. Compensate for temperature deformations of engine parts without any
additional load in these parts and in aircraft airframe.
5. Maintain high survivability and specified service life.
6. Aerodynamic drag should be minimal.
7. Maintainability (little duration of installation and removal of engine; ease of
rigging; good access at maintenance.)
 2.2 Loadings

Let's consider loadings which load engine mounts while in service.

They are mass and aerodynamic forces, thrust force, reaction torque from a
propeller, loadings from a device of thrust reverse. Moreover in case of changing
of direction of motion of aircraft, gyroscopic moment loads the engine mounts.
The mass forces are calculated by power plant mass. The power plant mass
includes: mass of engine and mass of all equipment, cowlings, propellers and
other units attached to the engine.
Approximately power plant mass can be determined as follows:
mp.p = (1.2...1.6)men ;
for airplanes with (bypass) turbojets
for airplanes with turboprops mp.p = (1.9...2.2)men , where men — mass of
the engine.
Thrust force of piston engines or turboprops is determined by formula, N:
T = Ne η p/ V H,
where Ne — effective power of the engine, W; ηр — efficiency of the propeller;
V H— flight speed, m/s.
Efficiency of the propeller depends on the flight speed in a complicated manner.
Therefore within the course project, it is possible to use the approximate relation
for take off thrust:
T ≈ (17.4...20.4)Ne .
The aerodynamic forces, acting to a cowling of engine, are determined by wind-
tunnel tests.
The mass forces are applied in a center of mass of engine. These mass forces
are gravity force and inertial forces. These inertial forces appear in case of
changes of flight direction and aircraft attitude. At strength analysis, they usually
use the coordinate system fixed in aircraft (the body axes). Origin of this
coordinate system is fixed to center of mass of aircraft. The 0x axis is directed
forward along the axis of the aircraft.
The Oy axis lies in a plane of symmetry of aircraft perpendicularly to Ox.
The Oz axis is directed by right-hand triple (as a vector product of units of Ox
and Oy axes).
 2.3 Critical load conditions
Forces and moments loading to engine mounts in run of aircraft, can assume various
values. Therefore there are normative papers, such as NLGS-3, AP, FAR, JAR. A
number of positions of aircraft, corresponding to the heaviest loading conditions are
specified in them. These cases are called critical load conditions. Selection of the
normative paper is determined by the technical requirements to the designed aircraft.
These critical load conditions are studied in detail in the course «Strength analyses
of aircraft». Here, we will consider only supplementary conditions for engine mounts
according to AP-25.
Engine and APU torque.
(a) Each engine mount, APU and its supporting structure must be designed for the
effects of
(1) A limit engine or APU torque corresponding to takeoff power and propeller
speed, acting simultaneously with 75 percent of the limit loads from flight condition 1;
(2) A limit torque corresponding to the maximum continuous power and propeller
speed, acting simultaneously with the limit loads from flight condition 1;
(3) For turboprop installations, in addition, a limit engine torque corresponding to
takeoff power and propeller speed, multiplied by a factor accounting for propeller
control system malfunction, including quick feathering, acting simultaneously with 1g
level flight loads. In the absence of a rational analysis, a factor of 1.6 must be used.
(A) Appling (a) to turbojets, limit torque must be equal to the torque appearing at limit
angular acceleration of engine rotating parts.
 Side load on engine mount.

(a) Each engine mount and its supporting structure must be designed for a limit
load factor in a lateral direction, for the side load on the engine mount, at least
equal to the maximum load factor obtained in the yawing conditions but not less
than 1.33.
(b) This side load may be assumed to be independent of other flight conditions.
(A) When engine is mounted to a wing, side load directed from axis of airplane
must be not less than Pz = ω2xr ⋅mP.P ,
where mP.P — power plant mass; ωx — limit roll angular velocity; r — distance
from engine center of gravity to longitudinal axis of airplane in plane view.
(B) Simultaneous action of above specified side load and weight of engine must
be considered too.
Critical condition 1 corresponds to curved flight with limit lift
coefficient and limit load factor.
 3 Airframes of engine mounts

3.1 Engine mounts for piston engines

Attachment of radial piston engine is usually performed by frame, Fig. 3. This frame
consists of 6...8 beams and a load–carrying ring with attachment fittings for the
engine. Shock absorbers are installed in these fittings. In addition the other shock
absorbers can be installed in attachment fittings to the airplane.

Fig. 3. The engine mounts of a radial piston engine

In designing calculations, for simplification, this frame is considered as a truss. That

is the beams with anchorage at its ends are considered as rods with hinges at its
ends.
The engine mount of radial piston engine is shown in Fig. 3. It consists of the load–
carrying ring 1 with the attachment fittings 4 of the engine. In these attachment
fittings shock absorbers are installed. The rods 2 of the frame are attached to the
load–carrying ring and among themselves by welding with gusset plates 3. In the
attachment fittings 5 of the frame to the airframe, the eyes are welded in rods. This
system is twice statically indeterminate.
The engine mounts of piston engine is usually made of high-strength alloyed steels.
To provide the fatigue life, they use the moderated hardening (σb = 1100...1200
[MPa]).
Rigging of such system is carried out in attachment fittings to the airframe.
Temperature deformations are compensated by shock absorbers. Strength analysis
is performed by known methods of structural mechanics.
In practice, multispan engine mounts are met, Fig. 4. This is due to the fact that
conditions of engine arrangement, minimization of the aerodynamic drag and
optimality of angles of the truss α ≈ (30...45)°.

Fig. 4. The scheme of double–span engine

mounts
Engine mounts of in-line piston engines (Fig. 5) are classified according to:
1) a irframe: truss, truss-girder, beam and frame;
2) transmission of side loading: with a crosstie (the casing of engine does not transmit
any side loading) and without a crosstie (the casing of engine transmits side loading);
3) type of attachment: concentrated attachment and distributed attachment. In the
figure there are denoted 1 — the engine-support beams; 2 — the rods.
In–line piston engines are attached to the engine–support beams 1, 2, Fig. 6. The fiber
plates 3 are arranged between them and the engine. They serve for a fit of engine to
all surface of the engine–support beam; vibration damping; decrease of effect of
thermal stresses.
The crosstie 4, 5 prevents the engine from side loads. This structure is attached to
airplane by two rods 6 and two hinges 7. Therefore it is truss–girder. There are two
shock absorbers in the nodes 8. These shock absorbers consist of some steel rings 9
and rubber rings 10 vulcanized together. They are separated with the steel rings 11
and 12.
Bush 13, steel ring 14 and rubber ring 15 are vulcanized together and installed into
holder 16. They serve for vibration damping too.
The engine mount of the in–line piston engines usually consists of more than six rods.
Sometimes, by conditions of arrangement, some rods are designed with a breaking of
its axis. In the places of breaking these rods must be reinforced. Holes for attachment
of engines in the engine–support beam are sometimes made oval shaped. It allows an
engine to be extended when being heated. Rigging of such systems is provided by
regulated struts 6.
Fig. 5. Classification of engine mounts of in–line piston engines
In truss-girder and beam airframes (Fig. 7), the beams are usually not connected
among themselves. Thus casing carries side loadings.
Engine is attached at four points by trunnions. Due to little stiffness of the forward
fittings, all forces (except for ) are carried by the rear (main) fittings. This fitting is
arranged near a center of mass of engine. The moment is jointly carried by forward
(auxiliary) and rear fittings.
The beam structure can be assembled or stamped. Beams 1 of assembled structure
(Fig. 7, а) are made of aluminium alloys. They consist of caps 3, webs 2 and
reinforcements 5. The reinforcements must be in places of trunnions 6. The stamped
beams 1 (Fig. 7, b) can be made of a magnesium alloy. In truss-girder airframe (Fig.
7, b) in addition to the beam 1 there are rods 2. These rods should not prevent engine
from thermal expansions.
Fig. 6. Truss engine mounts of in–line piston engine
Fig. 7. Beam and truss-girder engine mounts of in–line piston engines
 3.2. Engine mounts of turboprops

Attachment of turboprops at airplanes is usually performed by three-dimensional

frame structures. Its airframe can be truss (An-10, An-24) or truss-girder (Il-18).
The engine mounts of turboprops (Fig. 8) consists of eight rods.
They are made of high-strength alloyed steel. The rods are provided with regulated
ends and check holes. These check holes serve to control minimal required
number of turn of thread. As 8-6=2, the structure is twice statically indeterminate.
Let's consider loading of this engine mounts. Using symmetry and considering
symmetrical and antisymmetric loadings separately, it is possible to reduce the
problem to once statically indeterminate. (When symmetrical loads act, the forces
in symmetrical rods are equal, and, when antisymmetrical loads act, the forces in
symmetrical rods are equal in value and have opposite sign.)

Fig.8. Truss engine mounts of turboprop

 In truss-girder airframe (Fig. 9),
elements 5 are designed as beams. It
allows: first, to reduce length of rods 6.
Second, a beam usually carries
compressive stresses better than a
rod. It is necessary to note, that in this
case the beam carries bending stress
only from action of side loads.
In fig 9 it is denoted:
1 — forward trunnion;
2 — forward shock absorber;
3 — link; 4 — upper supporting strut
(rod); 5 — beam;
6 — internal supporting strut (rod);
7 — bracket; 8 — jumper;
9 — rear supporting strut (rod) with
shock absorber;
10 — fork; 11 — retaining screw;
12 — casing; 13 — nut;
14, 15, 18 — bushings; 16 — disk
shock absorber; 17 — ring; 19 —
central rod;
Fig. 9. The truss-girder airframe 20 — transitional bushing; 21 — eye.
engine mounts of turboprop
 3.3 Engine mounts of (bypass) turbojets
Depending on engine arrangement at an airplane, engine mounts can strongly
differ. Engine mounts of (bypass) turbojets are usually designed by truss or truss-
girder airframe. It is necessary to note, that trusses in this case usually represent
a set of separate rods. As a whole they provide geometrical stability of the engine
mounts.
Engine mounts of (bypass) turbojets inside a fuselage. In Fig.10 the engine
mounts of turbojet with centrifugal compressor, arranged inside a fuselage, is
shown.

Fig. 10 Engine mounts of turbojet with

centrifugal compressor inside a
fuselage
 It is necessary to pay attention
to design realization of the
attachment of rods 4, 4’ and
nodes A. The attachment of
rods 4, 4’ (Fig. 11) carries the
loadings, lying in a plane of the
load–carrying frame, and does
not carry loading normal to its
plane. In the nodes A (Fig. 12)
the eccentric split spherical
bushings are located. They
allow to execute rigging of
engine at the airplane.
All these rods are made of
high-strength alloyed steel as
pipes. Installation and removal
of the engine are performed
when the tail part of fuselage is
detached.

In Fig.13 the engine mounts of turbojet with the axial-flow compressor is shown.
Here the engine is attached at two supporting locations to load–carrying frames.
Fig. 13 Engine mounts of turbojet with axial-flow compressor inside a fuselage
The node A carries thrust and is loaded in addition by side loads. The rod 5 takes
part in carrying side loads. The load–carrying element A represents a pin, Fig. 14.
When mounting the engine, the lower part of this pin enters into the spherical
bearing installed on the engine. Such way of attachment in the node A provides
some translation along the vertical line and turn at rigging of engine and at its
thermal expansion. This pin is attached to a longitudinal beam of fuselage in two
nodes. The pin is attached to the top cap of the beam with the steel bolt. The pin is
pressed to the lower cap of the beam with a steel wedge. Thus the beam carries out
thrust force.
All rods of the structure are made of high-strength
alloyed steel. They are attached to the brackets of
engine and to the brackets of load–carrying
frames with bolts. The rods 3, 4, 5, arranged at the
second supporting location, are regulated. It allows
to change their length at rigging of engine.
The engine is installed and removed when the tail
part of a fuselage is detached with a special hand
cart. To simplify mounting, casing of the engine
carries on the brackets with rollers. In the fuselage
there are directing rails. By these rails the engine
is rolled inside of the fuselage, and then attached
Fig. 14. Node A to engine mounts.
In case of arrangement of two engines side-by-side in the tail part of a fuselage each
of them is attached to load–carrying frames and beams of a fuselage similarly. Thus
the pin, carrying the engine thrust, can be placed either from above or sideways of
engine, depending on convenience of arrangement.
Engine mounts of (bypass) turbojets to a fuselage. Such structures were used at
Tu-104, Tu-124 airliners. We shall consider the engine mounts shown in Fig.15.

In this case engines are arranged

directly behind the wing torsion box
closely to the fuselage. They are
attached at two supporting locations to
the load–carrying frames of the
fuselage. The structure is formed by
seven rods. Thus, it has one redundant
member (extent of static indefinability).

Fig.15. Engine mounts of bypass turbojet to a fuselage

Engine mounts of turbojets with pylons in the tail part of a fuselage. Such
arrangement of engines has been applied at Tu-134, Tu-154, Yak-40, Yak-42
airliners. Such arrangement of engines is used for the most part of executive
airplanes with (bypass) turbojets. For instance we shall consider the engine mounts
of Yak-40 airplane.

Fig.16. Engine mounts of bypass

turbojet with pylon to the tail part
of a fuselage
 The scheme and some elements of engine
mounts of center engine of Yak-40 are
shown in Fig.17.
Its attachment to load–carrying frames of the
tail part of the fuselage are also performed
at two supporting location.

Fig.17. Engine mounts of bypass turbojet in

the tail part of a fuselage
Engine mounts of bypass turbojets with pylons under wing. Such arrangement now
the most widely used at passenger and transport airplanes.
In this case the load–carrying structure of a pylon carries and transmits all loadings,
acting from engine and nacelle, to spars of wing and load–carrying ribs. The problem
of carrying of these loadings is complicated by the fact that, the engines are usually
considerably staggered forward. This made to prevent flutter of wing. However it
results in the big sweep of the pylon.
This problem can be solved by using longitudinal and transverse beams, arranged
inside the pylon. This design is shown in Fig.18.
In this case engine mount attaches an engine to a pylon. The design of this engine
mount is similar to the one of the engine on pylon at a fuselage.

Fig.18. Engine mounts of (bypass) turbojet with pylon under the wing