9.

1 introduction
 Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users
to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.
 High capacity is required.
 must be done without severe degradation in the performance.

 Duplexing is needed to allow subscribers send and receive

information simultaneously.
e.g., telephone systems,
 (1) Duplexing

Using frequency or time domain techniques.

Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user.
 Forward band----from the base station to the mobile
 Reverse band----from the mobile to the base.
 Consists of two simplex channels
 Duplexer is used
 The frequency split between the forward and reverse channel is
constant.

Time division duplexing (TDD)

 Uses time to provide both a forward and reverse link.
 If the time split between the forward and reverse time slot is
small, then the transmission and reception of data appears
simultaneous.
 Allows communication on a single channel and simplifies the
subscriber equipment since a duplexer is not required.
Trade-offs between FDD and TDD:

FDD
 Each transceiver simultaneously transmits and receives radio
signals which vary by more than 100 dB, the frequency
allocation used for the forward and reverse channels must be
carefully coordinated with out-of-band users that occupy
spectrum between these two bands.

 The frequency separation must be coordinated to permit the

use of inexpensive RF technology.

TDD
 Eliminate the need for separate forward and reverse frequency
bands.

 There is a time latency due to the fact that communications is

not full duplex in the truest sense.
 (2) Multiple Access

 Three major techniques:

 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Others:
 Packet radio (PR)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

 These techniques can be grouped as narrowband and

wideband systems, depending upon how the
available bandwidth is allocated to the users.
The duplexing technique of a multiple access system is usually
described along with the particular multiple access scheme
 a) Narrowband Systems

 The available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of

narrowband channels.
 Each channel is relatively narrow compared with the coherence
bandwidth.
 The channels are usually operated using FDD.
 To minimize interference between forward and reverse links,
the frequency split is made as great as possible
allowing inexpensive duplexers

 Narrowband FDMA ---- a user is assigned a particular channel

which is not shared by other users in the vicinity.
If FDD is used, the system is called FDMA/FDD.

 Narrowband TDMA ---- allows users to share the same channel

but allocates a unique time slot to each user.
 For narrowband TDMA, there generally are a large number of
channels allocated using either FDD or TDD, and each channel
is shared using TDMA.
TDMA/FDD or TDMA/TDD
 b) Wideband systems

 The transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger

than the coherence bandwidth.
multipath fading does not greatly affect the received signal,
frequency selective fades occur in only a small fraction of the
bandwidth.
 A large number of transmitters are allowed to transmit on the
same channel.

Wideband TDMA ---- allocates time slots to the many transmitters

on the same channel and allows only one transmitter to access
the channel at any instant of time,
TDMA/FDD, TDMA/TDD

Wideband CDMA ---- allows all of the transmitters to access the

channel at the same time.
CDMA/FDD, CDMA/TDD
 9.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
 Each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.
 These channels are assigned on demand, and can not be
shared.
The features of FDMA:

 The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

 If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be

used by other users to increase or share capacity. It is
essentially a wasted resource.

 After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and

the mobile transmit simultaneously and continuously.

 The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30

kHz) as each channel supports only one circuit per carrier. That
is, FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

 The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay

spread. This implies that the amount of intersymbol
interference is low and, thus, little or no equalization is required
in FDMA narrowband systems.
The features of FDMA (continued):

 The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when

compared to TDMA systems, though this is changing as digital
signal processing methods improve for TDMA.

 Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits

are needed for overhead purposes (such as synchronization
and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.

 FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared

to TDMA systems, because of the single channel per carrier
design, and the need to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate
spurious radiation at the base station.

 The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the

transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This results
in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base
stations.

 FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel

interference.
 Nonlinear Effects in FDMA:

 In FDMA, Many channels share the same antenna at the base

station.

 The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated

at or near saturation for maximum power efficiency, are
nonlinear.

 The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the frequency

domain and generate intermodulation (IM) frequencies.
interfere adjacent-channels, or adjacent services

 Intermodulation distortion products occur at frequencies mf1 +

nf2 for all integer values of m and n.

 Some of the possible intermodulation frequencies that are

produced by a nonlinear device are
(2n+1)f1-2nf2, (2n+2)f1-(2n+1)f2, (2n+1)f1-2nf2, (2n+2)f2-
(2n+1)f1,
etc. for n = 0, 1, 2, ……
 9.3 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot,
achannel may be thought of as particular time slot that reoccurs
every frame, where N time slots comprise a frame.
 Transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method, the transmission
for any user is noncontinuous.
digital data and digital modulation must be used with TDMA.
 Frame structure:

The transmission from various users is interlaced into a repeating

frame structure.
 Frame ---- consists of a number of slots (information message),
together with a preamble, and tail bits.
 Preamble ---- contains the address and synchronization
information that both the base station and the subscribers use to
identify each other.
 Guard times ---- allow synchronization of the receivers between
different slots and frames.
Features of TDMA:

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where

each user makes use of nonoverlapping time slots. The number
of time slots per frame depends on several factors, such as
modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc.
 Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous,
but occurs in bursts. This results in low battery consumption,
since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in
use (which is most of the time).
 Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff
process is much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to
listen for other base stations during idle time slots. An enhanced
link control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff
(MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening on an idle
slot in the TDMA frame.
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception,
thus duplexers are not required. Even if FDD is used, a switch
rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is
required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.
Features of TDMA (continued):

 Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems,

since the transmission rates are generally very high as compared
to FDMA channels.
 In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted
signal at the edges of a time slot are suppressed sharply in order
to shorten the guard time, the transmitted spectrum will expand
and cause interference to adjacent channels.
 High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems
because of burst transmissions. TDMA transmissions are slotted,
and this requires the receivers to be synchronized for each data
burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users,
and this results in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as
compared to FDMA.
 TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different
numbers of time slots per frame to different users. Thus
bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by
concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.
 Efficiency of TDMA:

 The frame efficiency, is the percentage of bits per frame which

contain transmitted data.

It is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains

information as opposed to providing overhead for the access
scheme.
 The transmitted data may include source and channel coding bits,
so the raw end-user efficiency of a system is generally less than
frame efficiency.

Number of channels In TDMA system:

 Can be found by multiplying the number of TDMA slots per
channel by the number of channels available
 9.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
(SSMA)
 Transmission bandwidth is several orders of magnitude greater
than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence converts a narrowband signal
to a wideband noise-like signal.

 Provides immunity to multipath interference and robust

multiple access capability.

 Bandwidth efficient in a muthple user environment.

 Two main types SSMA:

 Frequency hopped multiple access (FH)
 Direct sequence multiple access (DS)

Direct sequence multiple access is also called code division

multiple access (CDMA).
 9.4.1 Frequency Flopped
Multiple Access (FHMA)
Definition ：
The carrier frequencies of the individual users are varied in a
pseudorandom fashion within a wideband channel.

 Data is broken into uniform sized bursts then transmitted on

different carrier frequencies.
 The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst is
much smaller than the total spread bandwidth.
 The pseudorandom change of the carrier frequencies of the
user randomizes the occupancy of a specific channel at any
given time, multiple access allowed.
 In the FR receiver, a locally generated PN code is used to
synchronize the receivers instantaneous frequency.
 At any given point in time, a frequency hopped signal only
occupies a single, relatively narrow channel.
 9.4.1 Frequency Flopped
Multiple Access (FHMA)
Difference between FHMA and FDMA:
 In FHMA, The frequency hopped signal changes channels at
rapid intervals.

Fast hopping and slow hopping:

 fast frequency hopping ---- the rate of change of the carrier
frequency is greater than the symbol rate
Can be thought of as an FDMA system which employs frequency
diversity
 slow frequency hopping ---- the channel changes at a rate less
than or equal to the symbol rate
 9.4.1 Frequency Flopped
Multiple Access (FHMA)
 FHMA systems often employ energy efficient constant
envelope modulation.
 Inexpensive receivers may be built to provide noncoherent
detection of FHMA.
linearity is not an issue.

 A frequency hopped system provides a level of security,

especially when a large number of channels are used.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple

Access (CDMA)
In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a
very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
 The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that
has a chip rate which is orders of magnitudes greater than the
data rate of the message.
 All users use the
same carrier
frequency and may
transmit
simultaneously.
 Each user has its
own pseudorandom
codeword which is
approximately
orthogonal to all
other code words.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple

Access (CDMA)
The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect
only the specific desired codeword.
All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation.
 The receiver needs to know the codeword used by the
transmitter.
Each user operates independently with no knowledge of the other
users.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
near-far problem:

 The near-far problem occurs when many mobile users share

the same channel.
 In general, the strongest received mobile signal will capture the
demodulator at a base station.
 In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the
base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby
decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received.
 the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor
after decorrelation.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple
Power control:
Access (CDMA)
 Provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures
that each mobile within the base station coverage area
provides the same signal level to the base station receiver.
This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber
overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the
signals of far away subscribers.

 Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly

sampling the radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of
each mobile and then sending a power change command over
the forward radio link.
out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is not under
the control of the receiving base station.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA:

 Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.

Either TDD or FDD may be used.

 Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.

Increasing the number of users in a CDMA system raises the
noise floor in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute limit
on the number of users in CDMA. Rather, the system
performance gradually degrades for all users as the number of
users is increased, and improves as the number of users is
decreased.

 Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the

signal is spread over a large spectrum. If the spread spectrum
bandwidth is greater than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel, the inherent frequency diversity will mitigate the
effects of small-scale fading.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA (continued):

 Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.

Consequently, the symbol (chip) duration is very short and
usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN
sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is
delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE
receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time
delayed versions of the required signal.

 Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic

spatial diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is
performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a
particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may
chose the best version of the signal at any time without
switching frequencies.
 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA (continued):

 Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming

arises from the fact that the spreading sequences of different
users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the despreading of a
particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver
decision statistic for a desired user arise from the
transmissions of other users in the system.

 The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired

user has a high detected power as compared to the desired
user.
9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum
Techniques
(1) Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA)

 The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of

subspectras with smaller bandwidths.
 Each of these smaller subchannels becomes a narrowband
CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original
CDMA system.

Advantages: The required bandwidth need not be continuous and

different users can be allotted different subspectrum
bandwidths depending on their requirements.

Capacity: equal to the sum of the capacities of a system operating

in the subspectra.
9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum
Techniques
(2) Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access
(DS/FHMA)

 Consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center

frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom
fashion.
Advantage: Avoid the near-far effect.
Drawback: Not adaptable to the soft handoff process
for it is difficult to synchronize the frequency hopped base station
receiver to the multiple hopped signals.
9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum
Techniques
(3) Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)

 Different spreading codes are assigned to different cells. Within

each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time
slot. Thus at any time, only one CDMA user is transmitting in
each cell.
 When a handoff takes place, the spreading code of the user is
changed to that of the new cell.

Advantage:
Avoids the near-far effect.
Since only one user transmits at a time within a cell.
9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum
Techniques
(4) Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)

 The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of a new

TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a
particular channel.

Advantage: robust in severe multipath or when severe co-channel

interference occurs.
Adopted for the GSM standard, where the hopping sequence is
predefined and the subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain
frequencies which are assigned to a cell.

 The use of TDFH can increase the capacity of GSM by several

fold.
 9.5 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
Principle:
SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antennas to
control the radiated energy for each user in space.
These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served
by the same frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA systern) or different
frequencies (in an FDMA system).
 Sectorized antennas ----
primitive application of
SDMA.
 Adaptive antennas ----
simultaneously steer
energy in the direction
of many users at
once.
Appear to be best
suited for TDMA and
CDMA base station
architectures.
 9.5 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
Problem:
The reverse link presents the most difficulty in cellular systems.

 First, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must be

dynamically controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the
interference level for all other users.

 Second, transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the

subscriber unit, therefore there are limits on the degree to which power
may be controlled.

If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired

user so that more energy is detected from each subscriber, then the
reverse link for each user is improved and less power is required.
 9.5 Space Division Multiple Access
(SDMA)
Adaptive antennas

 Can be used at the base station (or subscriber units) to mitigate

some of the problems on the reverse link.
 optimal SDMA can be realized if infinitesimal beamwidth and
infinitely fast tracking ability are available.
 Unique channel that is free from the interference of all other users in the
cell is provided.
 All users within the system would be able to communicate at the same
time using the same channel.
 A perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to track individual
multipath components for each user and combine them in an optimal
manner to collect all of the available signal energy from each user.

 The perfect adaptive antenna system is not feasible.

Since it requires infinitely large antennas.
Gains might be achieved using reasonably sized arrays with
moderate directivities.
 9.6 Packet Radio (PR)
 In PR, many subscribers attempt to access a single channel in an
uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner.
 Contention technique is used to transmit on a common channel.
 Transmission is done by using bursts of data.
 Collisions are detected at the BS, ACK or NACK signal is broadcast.
 ACK ---- Acknowledgment of a received burst
 NACK ---- Negative acknowledgment)
 Advantage:
 Very easy to implement
 Have the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with virtually no
overhead.
 Drawback: low spectral efficiency and may induce delays.
 Example: ALOHA
 Each subscriber transmit whenever they want
 If a collision occurs, waits a random amount of time, and retransmits.
 Main parameter:
 Throughput (T) ---- the average number of messages successfully
transmitted per unit time
 Average delay (D) ---- time delay experienced by a typical
message burst.
 9.6.1 Packet Radio
 Protocols
Vulnerable period ----the time interval during which the
packets are susceptible to collisions with transmissions
from other users.

 The Packet A will suffer a collision if other terminals transmit

packets during the period t1 to + 2  .
Even if only a small portion of packet A sustains a collision, the
interference may render the message useless.
 9.6.1 Packet Radio

Protocols
Assume:
 All packets sent by all users have a constant packet length and
fixed, channel data rate
 All other users may generate new packets at random time
intervals.
 Packet transmissions occur with a Poisson distribution having a
mean arrival rate of  packets per second.

 Then, the Normalized Channel Traffic R is given by

R  
 R is a measure of the channel utilization, the unit is Erlangs.
 If R>1, then the packets generated by the users exceed the
maximum transmission rate of the channel.
 To obtain a reasonable throughput, the rate at which new packets
are generated must lie within 0<R<1.
 9.6.1 Packet Radio

Protocols
The normalized throughput T (Under conditions of normal
loading)

T  R  Pr [no  collision]    Pr [no  collission]

 T is the same as the total offered load L.
 0<T<1, and can be thought of as the fraction of time
(fraction of an Erlang) a channel is utilized.

 For a Poisson Distribution,

Pr (n)  R n e  R
n
 Therefore, !

Pr[no  collision]  Pr (0)  e

R
 9.6.1 Packet Radio
Protocols
Based on the type of access, contention protocols are
categorized as

Random access ---- there is no coordination among the

users and the messages are transmitted from the users as
they arrive at the transmitter

Scheduled access ---- based on a coordinated access of users on

the channel, and the users transmit messages within allotted
slots or time intervals.

Hybrid access ---- a combination of random access and

scheduled access.
 (1) Pure ALOHA
 Random access protocol.
 Whenever ready, transmitted immediately, then check ACK
and NACK.
As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs
because the probability of collision increases

 Vulnerable period: double the packet duration

 Probability of no collision:
found by evaluating Pr (n) given as

 Then the throughput is

 (2) Slotted ALOHA
 Time is divided into equal time slots of length greater than the
packet duration.

 The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and transmit

a message only at the beginning of a new time slot
Resulting in a discrete distribution of packets.

 Prevents partial collisions through synchronization.

 As number of users increase, greater delay will occur due to
collisions and retransmissions.
The number of slots which a transmitter waits prior to
retransmitting also determines the delay characteristics of the
traffic.

 The vulnerable period is only one packet duration

Throughput:
9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA)
ALOHA protocols do not listenProtocols
to the channel before
transmission, therefore do not exploit information about the other
users.

 CSMA listens to the channel before engaging in

transmission
 If the channel is idle, then transmit.
Greater efficiencies may be achieved.

Parameters:
 Detection delay ---- the time required for a terminal to sense
whether or not the channel is idle.
is a function of the receiver hardware.

 Propagation delay ---- a relative measure of how fast it

takes for a packet to travel from a base station to a mobile
terminal.
Propagation delay impacts the performance of CSMA
protocols.
9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA)
propagation delayd
Protocols
t (in packet transmission units)

where tp is the propagation time in

seconds
Rb is the channel bit rate
m is the expected number of bits in
a data packet
9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA)
Several variations Protocols
of the CSMA strategy:

(1) 1-persistent CSMA

 The terminal listens to the channel and waits for transmission
until it finds the channel idle.
 As soon as the channel is idle, the terminal transmits its
message with probability one.
(2) non-persistent CSMA
 After receiving a negative acknowledgment the terminal waits
a random time before retransmission.
This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet
transmission interval is much greater than the propagation delay to
the farthermost user.
(3) p-persistent CSMA
 When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in
the first available slot with probability p or in the next slot with
probability 1-p.
Applied to slotted channels.
9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA)
(4) CSMA/CD (CSMA with collisionProtocols
detection)
 User monitors its transmission for collisions.
 If collision happens, abort transmission in midstream.
 User having both a transmitter and receiver
support listen-while-talk operation.

(5) Data sense multiple access (DSMA)

 A special type of CSMA
A forward control channel is employed.
 Each user attempts to detect a busy-idle message which is
interspersed on the forward control channel.
 When the busy-idle message indicates that no users are
transmitting on the reverse channel, a user is free to send.
Used in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) cellular network
(see next chapter).
 9.6.3 Reservation
Protocols
(1) Reservation ALOHA:
 A packet access scheme based on time division multiplexing.
 Certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it is
possible for users to reserve slots for the transmission of
packets.
Permanently reserved or reserved on request.
 For high traffic conditions, reservations on request offers
better throughput.

Examples of Reservation ALOHA:

 Type 1: The terminal making a successful transmission
reserves a slot permanently until its transmission is complete.
But very large duration transmissions may be interrupted.
 Type 2: Allows a user to transmit a request on a subslot which
is reserved in each frame. If the transmission is successful, the
terminal is allocated the next regular slot in the frame for data
transmission.
 9.6.3 Reservation
(2) Packet Protocols
Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)

 PRMA uses a discrete packet time technique similar to

reservation ALOHA, and combines the cyclical frame structure.
The frame structure is much like in TDMA.

 Each slot carry either voice or data, where voice is given

priority.
Aim to integrate bursty data and human speech.

 Within each frame, there are a fixed number of time slots which
may be designated as either “reserved" or "available",
depending on the traffic as determined by the controlling BS
(Detailed in next chapter).
 9.6.4 Capture Effect in
Packet Radio
near-far effect:
Due to the contention, it is possible for the strongest user to
successfully capture the intended receiver.
Often, the closest transmitter wins because of the small propagation
path loss.

Advantages: many packets may survive despite collision on the

channel.
Disadvantages: a strong transmitter may make it impossible for the
receiver to detect a much weaker transmitter which is attempting
to communicate to the same receiver.
This problem is known as the hidden transmitter problem.

Capture ratio:
 Defined as the minimum power ratio of an arriving packet,
relative to the other colliding packets, such that it is received.
 It is a useful parameter in analyzing the capture effects.

This ratio is dependent upon the receiver and the modulation

used.
 Summary of this subsection
 Packet radio techniques support mobile transmitters sending
bursty traffic in the form of data packets using random access.
 Ideal channel throughput can be increased if terminals
synchronize their packet transmissions into common time slots.
Such that the risk of partial packet overlap is avoided.
 With high traffic loads, both unslotted and slotted ALOHA
protocols become inefficient.
Heavy collision, multiple retransmissions and increased
delays.
 CSMA can be used where the transmitter first listens either to
the common radio channel or to a separate dedicated
acknowledgment control channel from the base station.
In a practical mobile system, the CSMA protocols may fail to detect
ongoing radio transmissions of packets subject to deep fading on the
reverse channel path.
 Utilization of an ALOHA channel can be improved by deliberately
introducing differences between the transmit powers of multiple
users competing for the base station receiver.
 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
Channel capacity ---- the maximum number of channels or users
that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.
 This parameter measures spectrum efficiency of a wireless
system.
 Determined by the required carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) and
the channel bandwidth Bc.

Carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I):

 reverse channel interference ---- Interference at a base station
receiver, comes from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
 forward channel interference ---- interference at a particular
subscriber unit, comes from the surrounding co-channel base
stations.
(Considering the forward channel interference problem)
 the M closest co-channel cells may be considered as first order
interference in which case C/I is given by
n ---- path loss exponent.
D0 ---- distance from the mobile to the desired BS.
D ---- distance of the mobile to the cells in the first tier.
 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
 Usually, the C/I for each user is required to be greater than
some minimum (C/I)min, then the following equation must
hold for acceptable performance:

 Therefore, the reuse factor is

 The radio capacity of a cellular system is defined as

, where N=Q2/3

 Thus, The radio capacity is

 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
 In order to provide the same voice quality, (C/I) min may be
lower in a digital systems when compared to an analog
system.
(C/I) min is about 12 dB for narrowband digital systems
and 18 dB for narrowband analog FM systems.
 Each digital wireless standard has a different (C/I) min .

How to compare different systems?

use an equivalent C/I .
 If Bc and m are kept constant, we

have

Bc ---- bandwidth of a particular system

(C/I)min ---- tolerable C/I value for the same system
Bc’ ---- bandwidth for a different system
(C/I)eq ---- minimum C/I value for the different system when
compared to (C/I)min the for a particular system.
 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems
Capacity of Digital Cellular TDMA in practical systems:
TDMA systems improve capacity by a factor of 3 to 6 times
as compared to analog cellular radio systems, because of
many techniques used.
 Powerful error control and speech coding enable better link
performance in high interference environments.
 By exploiting speech activity, some TDMA systems are able
to better utilize each radio channel.
 Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) allows subscribers to
monitor the neighboring base stations, and the best base
station choice may be made by each subscriber.
 MAHO allows the deployment of densely packed microcells,
thus giving substantial capacity gains in a system.
 TDMA also makes it possible to introduce adaptive channel
allocation (ACA). ACA eliminates system planning since it
is not required to plan frequencies for cells.
Various proposed standards such as the GSM, U.S digital cellular
(USDC), and Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC) have adopted digital
TDMA for high capacity.
 9.7.1 Capacity of
 Cellular
The capacity CDMA
of CDMA systems is interference limited
while it is bandwidth limited in FDMA and TDMA.
 Reduction in the interference will cause a linear increase in the
capacity of CDMA.
 Link performance for each user increases as the number of users
decreases.
 Ways to reduce interference:
 multisectorized antennas
 Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)

 CDMA can reuse the entire spectrum for all cells

Results in an increase of capacity by a large percentage over the normal
frequency reuse factor.
 9.7.1 Capacity of
Cellular CDMA
Capacity of a single cell CDMA system

 forward link:
 The cell-site transmitter linearly combines the spread signals
of the individual users.
 A weighting factor for each signal is used for power control.
For a single cell system weighting factors can be assumed to be
equal.
 A pilot signal is also included in the cell-site transmitter
Used by each mobile to set its own power control for the reverse link.

 Reverse link:
 All the signals on the reverse channel are received at the same
power level at the base station
 9.7.1 Capacity of
Cellular
Derivation CDMA
of the capacity:
 Let the number of users be N. Then, each Demodulator at the cell site
receives a composite waveform containing the desired signal of
power S and (N-1) interfering users, each of which has power, S.
Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio is

 The SNR at the base station receiver can be represented in terms of

Eb/N0 given by

 Take the background thermal noise into consideration, Eb/N0 can be

represented as

 Then the number of users that can access the system is

W/R is called the processing gain.

 9.7.1 Capacity of
Cellular
In order CDMA
to achieve an increase in capacity, the interference due
to other users should be reduced.

Ways to reduce interference:

 multisectorized antennas
 Results in spatial isolation of users.
 The directional antennas receive signals from only a
fraction of the current users
 Leading to the reduction of interference.
e.g., using three antennas, each having a beam width of
120o, increases the capacity by a factor of 3.
 Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)
 Takes advantage of the intermittent nature of speech.
 Transmitter is turned off during the periods of silence in
speech.
Voice signals have a duty factor of about 3/8 in landline
networks and 1/2 for mobile systems.
 The average capacity of a CDMA system can be
increased by a factor inversely proportional to the duty
factor.
 9.7.1 Capacity of
 Cellular
With the use of these CDMA
two techniques, the new average
value of Eb/No' within a sector is given as

• interference received by a sector antenna,

which
where is one-third
N is the number ofof
s the
users perinterference
sector, and N is received
'
o

by an omni-directional antenna.

 When the number of users is large and

the system is interference limited
rather than noise limited, the number of
users can be shown to be
When voice activity factor = 3/8, using three sectors, the SNR
increases by a factor of 8, which leads to an 8 fold increase in
the number of users.
 9.7.1 Capacity of
Cellular
CDMA Power Control: CDMA
the system capacity is maximized if each mobile
transmitter power level is controlled so that its signal
arrives at the cell site with the minimum required signal-to-
interference ratio.

 if a mobile signal arrives at the cell site with a signal that is

too weak, and often the weak user will be dropped.

 If the received power from a mobile user is too great the

performance of this mobile unit will be acceptable, but it
will add undesired interference to all other users in the cell.
 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with
 multiple
In actual CDMA Cellular
cellular systems, neighboring cells share
the same frequency.
 A particular base station is unable to control the power of
users in neighboring cells.
 Interference from neighboring cells add to the noise floor
and decrease capacity on the reverse link.
 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with
 The amountmultiple Cellular
of out-of-cell interference determines the
frequency reuse factor, f.
 Ideally, f = 1.
 In practice, interference reduces f significantly.
 The frequency reuse factor for a CDMA system on the
reverse link can be defined as

 N0 ---- total interference power received from the N-1 in-cell users
 Ui ---- number of users in the i th adjacent cell
 Na,i ---- average interference power for a user located in the i th
adjacent cell.
 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with
 The averagemultiple
received power Cellular
from users in an adjacent cell:

where Nij is the power received at the base station of interest

from the jth user in the ith cell.

Note:
1. Each adjacent cell may have a different number of
users.
2. each out-of-cell user will offer a different level of
interference depending on its exact transmitted
power and location relative to the base station of
interest.
3. The variance of Nij can be computed using
standard statistical techniques for a particular cell.
 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with
 Liberti and multiple Cellular
Rappaport and Milstein uses a recursive
geometric technique to determine how the propagation
path loss impacts the frequency reuse of a CDMA system
by considering the interference from both in-cell and out-of-
cell users.
 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with
 Simulation multiple
results show thatCellular
f can range between 0.316 ~
0.707, depending on the path loss exponent, n, and the
distribution of users.
 9.7.3 Capacity of space division multiple Cellular
Assume a CDMA system that:

 Interference limited;
 AWGN channel;
 Perfect power control;
 No interference from adjacent cells;
 Omnidirectional antennas used at the base stations.
 signature sequences are random;
 Number of users, K, is sufficiently large to allow the Gaussian
approximation to be valid.

Then the average bit error rate for a user is

Three possible base station antenna configurations:

 Omni-directional antenna
 Detect signals from all users in the system;
 Receive the greatest amount of noise.
 Sectored antenna
 Divide the received noise into a smaller value.
 Increase the number of users.
 Adaptive antenna
 The most powerful form of SDMA.
 Be able to form a spot beam for each user.
 Can track each user in the cell as it moves.
Interference analysis for adaptive antenna system:

Assume
 A single cell CDMA system;
 Beam pattern, G(), is formed such that the pattern has maximum
gain in the direction of the desired user;
The pattern can be formed using an N-element adaptive array
antenna.
 No variation of gain of G() in the elevation plane;
 The power can be steered through 3 6 0 ° in the horizontal plane,
such that the desired user is always in the main beam of the
pattern;
 Number of users is K, and they are uniformly distributed
throughout a two-dimensional cell;
 The base station antenna is capable of simultaneously providing
such a pattern for all users in the cell.
 On the reverse link, the power received from the desired mobile
signals is Pr;0.
 The powers of the signal incident at the base station antenna
from K-1 interfering users are given by Pr;i for i = 1,2,……k-1.
 Then:
 The average total interference power, at the base station

 If no interference from adjacent cells, and perfect power control

is applied (Pr;i=Pc), then

 Assuming users are independently and identically distributed

throughout the cell, the average total interference seen by a
user in the central cell is given by

 D is the directivity of the antenna, given by max(G())

 In typical cellular installations, D ranges between 3 dB to 10 dB.
 As the antenna beam pattern is made more narrow, D increases,
and the received interference decreases proportionally.
 The average bit error rate for user 0 can thus be given by
conclusion:
 The probability of bit error is dependent on the beam pattern of
a receiver;
 There is considerable improvement that is achieved using high
gain adaptive antennas at the base station.

For multiple-cell system

The additional interference from adjacent cells simply adds to the
interference level
 The average probability of error:

f is the frequency reuse factor described

Note: multipath is not considered.