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Lecture 01

This document provides an overview of research methods and the research process. It discusses: 1. The objectives of research including sharpening analytical skills, developing understanding of research concerns, and preparing a research blueprint. 2. Key aspects of the scientific method including empirical observation, verifiability, being cumulative and deterministic. 3. The main dimensions of research including purpose (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory), intended uses (basic vs. applied), time dimensions (cross-sectional, longitudinal), and techniques (quantitative and qualitative). 4. The relationship between theory and research, with theory providing frameworks and concepts to explain phenomena and research producing facts to initiate, reject, and refine theory.

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59 views77 pages

Lecture 01

This document provides an overview of research methods and the research process. It discusses: 1. The objectives of research including sharpening analytical skills, developing understanding of research concerns, and preparing a research blueprint. 2. Key aspects of the scientific method including empirical observation, verifiability, being cumulative and deterministic. 3. The main dimensions of research including purpose (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory), intended uses (basic vs. applied), time dimensions (cross-sectional, longitudinal), and techniques (quantitative and qualitative). 4. The relationship between theory and research, with theory providing frameworks and concepts to explain phenomena and research producing facts to initiate, reject, and refine theory.

Uploaded by

KASHIF
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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RESEARCH METHODS

LECTURE 01
Students should be able to:

Sharpen the analytical skills.


Develop their understanding of the research concerns.
Develop the ability to convert the research concerns into a
research problem.
Prepare a roadmap or blueprint of the research – using
appropriate methodologies.
Conduct the research by following the complete research
process.
Textbook:

Neuman, W. L. (2000).
Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Boston: Allyen and Bacon.
Supplementary books:

Zikmund, W. G. (2003). Business Research Methods.


Mason, Ohio: South Western.
Sekaran, U. (2004). Research Methods for Business
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
What is research?

Gathering information needed to answer a question, and


thereby help in solving a problem.
Systematic and organized effort to investigate.
What is the value of research?
Research offers the pleasure of solving a
puzzle.
Generating Theories – Models
Identifying problems and solutions
Research helps to develop new
methodologies
RESEARCH METHODS

Lecture 2
Scientific Methods of Research and Its
Special Features.
Every human knowledge is not
science
Science is a method
A procedure to produce knowledge
i.e. discovering uniformities/ principles,
laws in this universe.
Process of “sensory experiences”

Observation  Repetition  Re-observation.


By repeating the observation researchers want to be
definite/positive.
This approach is called positivism
Results are organized, systematized, and
made part of the body of knowledge.
Special Features of Scientific
Method
1. Empirical

Observable phenomenon
2. Verifiable

• Use senses to confirm or refute the observation.


• “Sensory experiences”
• Intuitions and revelations are out.
• Replicability needed.
3. Cumulative

• Knowledge grows.
• Need not start from scratch.
Deterministic

• Explains why things happen?


• Parsimony  Minimum No. of
variables that
explain variance.
5. Ethical and ideological neutrality

• Value free.
• Objectivity. Is it possible?
6. Statistical generalization
7. Rationalism
• Employ rigorous rules of logic.
• Argumentation.
All features are
interrelated.
Scientists not necessarily
adhere to all these
characteristics.
Two power bases of knowledge

Empiricism: Sensory experience  positivism.


Rationalism: Explanation for regularity.
Consequential arguments. Logical.
Any body following the said
procedure of research is doing
scientific research.
Logical positivism i.e. theory +
observation + statistics
Four main dimensions:

1. Purpose of doing research.


2. Intended uses of research.
3. How it treats time  time dimension.
4. The research techniques used
1. Purpose of Research:
What the researcher trying to accomplish.
1. Exploratory/ Formulative
2. Descriptive
3. Explanatory
4. Studies can be multi-purpose
a. Exploratory Research:

 Initial research conducted to clarify


and define the nature of the
problem. Exploring a new topic.
 Specifically, there could be number
of goals of exploratory research.
Goals of Exploratory Research:
 Become familiar with the topic. Develop well grounded
picture of the situation.
 Develop tentative theories.
 Determine the feasibility of study.
 Formulate questions and refine issues for more
systematic inquiry.
 Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future
research
b. Descriptive Research:

Research designed to describe characteristics of the


phenomenon understudy.
Helps in diagnostic analysis
Goals of Descriptive Research:
 Describe the situation/characteristics. Provide an accurate
profile of a group.
 Give a verbal or numerical picture (%).
 Present basic background information.
 Create a set of categories or classify.
 Clarify sequence, set of stages.
 Focus on ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’ and ‘how’ but not
on ‘why’.
c. Explanatory Research:
 Also called as causal research i.e.
 ‘Why’? Explanation.
 Identify cause and effect relationship among different
factors.
Goals of Explanatory Research:
 Explain things not just reporting. Why?
 Which explanation is better.
 Determine the accuracy of theory.
 Advance knowledge about underlying process
 Build and elaborate a theory  complete.
 Extend a theory or principle into new areas.
 Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or
prediction.
2. Intended Uses of Research:

a. Basic Research
 Pure/ fundamental/ academic
 Developing/ refuting/ supporting theories.
 Expand knowledge.
 Explanatory research is the most common
 Applied can also contribute.
b. Applied Research:

 Solve specific problems  help practitioners.


Market new product.
 Choose one policy over the other.
 For improving productivity  problem with
machines, raw material, persons working.
Basic and Applied Research Comparison

Basic Research Applied Research


 Intrinsically satisfying  R  part of job
 Freedom.  Constrained to demands of
 High standards applied. sponsors
 Logic and rigorous research  R quick and dirty may
design not meet hi standards.
 Basic knowledge.
 Success results published,
 Apply to areas of interest to
impact on other scientists. sponsors.
 Practical payoffs.
 Success results are used
by sponsors.
Types of applied research:
 Action Research: Those who are being studied participate
in research process; research incorporates popular
knowledge; focus on power with goal of empowerment
increase awareness; tied to political actions.
 Impact Assessment: Estimate the likely consequences of
planned change.
 Evaluation Research: Did the program work? Measures the
effectiveness of program.
3. Time Dimensions of Research:

Cross-Sectional Research: Observe at one point in time,


Snapshot study.
Longitudinal Research: Examine at more than one time.
Can be 
• Time series study.
• Panel study.
• Cohort study – Category of people who share the same experience.
4. Research Techniques Used:

Quantitative: Qualitative:
Experiments Field Research
Surveys Case Study
Content Analysis Focus Group Discussion
Using Existing Statistics
RESEARCH METHODS

Lecture 4
Theory and Research
The purpose of science concerns:

The expansion of knowledge;


The discovery of truth; and
To make prediction.
Theory building is the means by which basic
researchers hope to achieve this purpose.
A scientist poses questions like:

What produces inflation?


Does student teacher interaction influence students’
performance?
Looking for:
Explanation
Prediction
Understanding the process to reach prediction
These are the purposes of theory.
A systematic and A suggested
general attempt to explanation for
explain something… something…

“Theory”
“Why do people
commit crimes? “Why do
people get
married?”

“How does the media


affect us?” “Why do kids play
truant from school?”

“Why do some people


believe in God?” “How is our identity
shaped by culture?”
Theory
A coherent set of general propositions used as
principles of explanation of the apparent relationships
of certain observed phenomena.
Key element in this definition is proposition.
Proposition
A statement concerned with the logical relationships among
concepts.
Logic (argument) abstracted from observed reality.
Theory is the highest level of abstraction.
Theory is a network of propositions.
Theories

Increasingly more abstract


Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects
and events (reality )
Concept
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
Building blocks of theory that abstract reality.
Examples:
“leadership,” “productivity,” “morale,”
“motivation,” “inflation,” “happiness,” “banana”
Abstract
Level CONCEPTS

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS


Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
A Ladder Of Abstraction For
Concepts

Increasingly more abstract


Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality
Theory and Research
Research produces facts.
Are facts and theories different?
Soft mental images vs. empirical world
of hard, settled, and observable things.
Theory and fact (research) contribute to
each other.
Role of Theory
Theory as orientation. Framework. Phenomenon may be
studied in different ways. Narrows the range of facts to be
studied. Study of football.
Theory as conceptualization and classification. Provides
concepts.
Theory in summarizing role. Empirical generalizations.
Theory predicts facts. Extrapolation.
Theory points gaps in knowledge.
Role of Facts
Facts initiate theory.
Facts lead to the rejection and reformulation
of theory. Alteration and expansion.
Facts clarify theory. New facts redefine
theory. Provide further clarification.
Theory and Research: The
Dynamic Duo
Theory and research are interrelated. The
dichotomy is artificial.
Researchers weave together knowledge from
different studies into more abstract theory.
CONCEPTS
Concept:
Things we observe  Observable
realities  physical or abstract
 For purposes of identification of a reality we try to
give a name to it.
 By using name we communicate with others. Part
of language
 Names are constructs.
 These constructs are concepts.
Concepts are Mental Images of Reality:

 Concept is an idea expressed as symbol or in words.


 Words are also symbols.
 Agreement to represent ideas by sounds or written
words.
 Concepts can be symbols.
An Abstraction of Reality:
Table, leadership, productivity, morale are all labels
given to some phenomenon (reality).
Concepts stand for phenomenon not the phenomenon
itself.
It may be called an abstraction of empirical reality.
Abstract
Level CONCEPTS

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS


Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
Degree of Abstraction:
Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the
basic concept becomes more abstract,
wider in scope, and less measurable.
A Ladder Of Abstraction For
Concepts:

Increasingly more abstract


Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality
Sources of Concepts:
 We create concepts from personal
experience. Mass, speed, family.
 We borrow from other disciplines.
 We develop a specialized jargon or
terminology for a particular subject.
Importance to Research:
 Concepts are basic to all thought and
communication.
 Special problems grow out of the need for concept
precision and inventiveness.
 We use concepts in hypothesis formulation.
Definitions:
Confusions about the meanings of concepts can destroy
the value of a study.
Definitions are one way to reduce this danger.
Two types of definitions:
 Dictionary (theoretical) definition
Operational definition.
Dictionary Definition:
Also called as
Conceptual/Theoretical/Nominal
Concept is defined with a synonym. Use other
constructs to explain a construct.
How to define a “customer,” “client,” “a
satisfied worker”?
Operational Definition:
 Working definition stated in terms of specific
testing or measurement criteria.
 Concrete indicators that can be
observed/measured. Specify empirical
indicators.
We use both the definitions in research:

Observational phenomenon  Construct


 Conceptual def.  operational
definition  data.

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