GEO1003 Spring 2007 Basalts

Basaltic Magmas: Introduction

 Basalts: Basics
•Basalts are most common primary melt of mantle and are very common on Earth and
terrestrial planets, hence its important to have a good grasp on basalts

•Basalts occur in every tectonic environment

•5 tectonic settings commonly used to subdivide basalts. Each has a distinct chemistry,

•MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt), IAB (Island Arc Basalt), CAB (Continental Arc
Basalts, but CAB also used for Calc-Alkaline Basalts), OIB (Ocean Island
Basalt) and CFB (Continental Flood Basalt).

•WPB (Within-Plate Basalts) includes OIB, CFB and other within-continent basalts

•MORB and OIB basalts must originate in mantle, but for CFB and arc basalts
we must also consider crust, including melting of subducting oceanic crust

•Arc basalts intimately associated with andesites

•OIB and some continental WPB associated with highly evolved often alkaline magmas
(even nephelinites, phonolites)
 Alkalic, Tholeiitic and Calc-Alkaline
•Common three-fold geochemical classification of basalts (and other igneous rocks)

•Igneous rocks can be alkalic (alkaline) or sub-alkalic, depending on ratio of total alkalis to silica
(see Fig 8-11 in Winter)

•OIB and some within-continent basalts are commonly alkalic. May have nepheline crystals

•Sub-alkalic rocks are much more common than alkalic

•Sub-alkalic rocks can be subdivided into tholeiitic and calc-alkaline

•Tholeiitic and calc-alkaline rocks plot as distnict fields on AFM plot

•Tholeiitic refers to igneous rocks (usually basalts) that are low in K, low in incompatible elements,
low Fe2O3/FeO ratio and displays pronounced Fe-enrichment on the AFM plot

•Calc-alkaline rocks do not display Fe enrichment on AFM plot and have higher
incompatible elements

•Note distinctions between calc-alkaline and tholeiite are more pronounced for
intermediate compositions not basalts
 Major Element Characteristics of Basalt Types

•MORB basalts are of typical tholeiite character: ie very low in incompatible elements
(K, Ba, P, Sr, U, Th, Zr), low Fe2O3/FeO etc

•IAB and continental arc basalts: tholeiite to calc-alkaline, but some alkaline also.
Compared to MORB all of these basalts are high in K2O and low in MgO and CaO

•OIB basalts: Most commonly alkalic, but tholeiitic (not as poor in K and incompatibles
as MORB) types occur

•CFB basalts: Voluminous tholeiitic basalts. Not as poor in K and incompatibles as MORB
Minor and Trace Element Characteristics of Basalt Types

•Many but rather subtle differences….

•OIB richest in ITE (incompatible trace elements) and MORB is poorest

•Calc-alkaline and alkalic basalts tend to be richer in P than tholeiites

•Trace elements (especially their ratios) may be used for “tectonomagmatic

discrimination” (ie to distinguish tectonic environment of ancient and even
metamorphosed basalts
 Parent Materials of Basalt From 3rd April
•We have already discussed some of this when we looked at melting of mantle

•We have already said that partial mantle of peridotite is a likely source for many basalts

•For island arc and continental arc basalts especially we must also consider partial
melting of a rock called eclogite

•Eclogite is high P equivalent of basalt (under dry conditions). It is composed mainly of

garnet plus the CPx called omphacite

Eclogite is generated from basaltic oceanic crust as it descends in the subduction zone
(to higher P)

•Melting of eclogite to give basaltic magma has been demonstrated , but its importance is
debated

•Partial melting of eclogite is not likely outside of subduction zones as it generates too
high a % of intermediate magmas

•We will now discuss two factors that are major influences on basalt chemistry: different
degrees of partial melting and source heterogeneity
 Degree of Partial Melting and Basalt Types

•At least some of the variation in basalt types reflects different degrees of partial
melting

•Different degrees of partial melting are of course inevitable

•Alkali basalts are products of low degrees of melting (3-7%) and tholeiitic basalts are
from higher degrees (20-30%) of melting (demonstrated experimentally and consistent
with their relative abundances

•We know that incompatible elements are concentrated in first melts, hence reason
why OIB and other alkali basalts are richer in these compared to MORB

•Note that tholeiitic basalts may also be generated by lower degrees of melting from a
source already depleted in incompatible elements (ie depleted versus fertile mantle)
 Source Heterogeneity and Basalt Types

•This is especially important when considering basalts associated with convergent

margins (where crust is subducted)

•Isotopic ratios strongly suggest source heterogeneity

•Remember that these are insensitive to magma fractionation processes (and hence
reflect source compositions)

•OIB basalts have higher initial Sr-87/Sr-86 than MORB, implying that the mantle
in the region underlying OIBs had higher Rb (an incompatible element)

•There is much geochemical and seismic evidence for mantle heterogeneity (at any one
depth)

•Many reasons for mantle heterogeneity: melting history, different basalt intrusion
history, metasomatism , contamination with subducted crust etc
 FC and Basaltic Magma Types
•Clearly some of geochemical variation of basalts is due to
processes such as FC

•LMIs such as Skaergaard clearly demonstrate that basalts do undergo FC, and that
most of the derived liquids are of basaltic composition

•MANY possible fractionation paths linking the different basalt types have been
postulated

•An important consideration is that a tholeiite can not fractionate to an alkali basalt
(and vice versa) at low pressures (<30Kb)

•Hence if alkali basalts were derived from tholeiites by FC, then this could only
be at high (>30Kb) pressures

•Undoubted FC derivatives of basalt are some picrites (with cumulate olivine) and
high_Al basalt which corresponds to the residual liquid after olivine is removed
 Crustal Contamination and Basalts

•Difficult to be sure of evidence for crustal contamination of basalts

•Evidence of crustal contamination of basalts is mostly from high Sr-87/Sr-86 ratios

in some basalts

•Some of these ratios indicate very high (50%) contamination by volume, which
would not generate a basalt!

•Variation in isotopic ratios may also reflect mantle heterogeneity or magma mixing
 Basalt Petrogenesis: MORB
•Partial melting of mantle peridotite near crests of MORs

•Depth of melting depends on spreading rates (etc). Estimates range from 20-70km

•Melting of spinel lherzolite mostly?

•If partial melting % is high, then may generate ultramafic melts (picrites)
which fractionate to basalts

•Depleted nature of MORB implies source region has had history of melts extraction
(“depleted mantle”)

•Some MORB in areas of high magma production (such as Iceland) is enriched in K

(and other incompatibles) compared to normal ridge MORB (N-MORB). Such
enriched MORB (E-MORB) may be derived from mantle plumes on the ridges which
source deeper less depleted mantle
 Basalt Petrogenesis: Within-Plate Basalts
•Continental and oceanic within-plate magmatism have some similarities. They are richer
in incompatibles than MORB, and (with exception of CFB) are dominantly alkalic

•WPB probably sourced from mantle plumes which bring deeper less depleted mantle
nearer surface

•Plumes probably arise from CMB (core-mantle boundary)

•Dominantly alkali nature of OIB implies low degrees of partial melting

•CFB volumes imply MUCH higher degrees of melting from mantle less depleted
than MORB and are typically linked with episodes of continental rifting.

•WPB basalts typically much more geochemically heterogeneous than MORB, implying
significant mantle heterogeneity
 Basalt Petrogenesis: Convergent Margins

•Basalts are common in such a setting and very commonly occur with andesites
•Common origin?
•Most complex basalt petrogenesis to understand
•Tholeiitic basalts occur where subduction zone is shallowest
•Alkalic basalts where subduction zone is deepest
•IAB generally more enriched than MORB and have higher initial Sr-87/Sr-86 ratios
•IAB most common in young arcs

•Basalts in such settings could (potentially) be generated from melting of oceanic

crust and/or melting of mantle

•Melting of mantle “wedge” is favoured

•Role of sedimentary contamination is variable and (often) debatable