MODULE 4: SCIENCE AND

TECHNOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
What is Science?

• A systematic study of the physical or

material world done through observation
and experimentation.
• Science is a systematic knowledge of the
physical or material world obtained
through observation and
experimentation.
 WHAT IF WE USE ETYMOLOGY?
• The term science comes from the Latin
word ‘scientia’ meaning ‘knowledge’
thus science is a system of acquiring
knowledge based on the scientific
method.
• Stages in scientific knowledge:
 Ask questions
 Do background research
 Construct hypothesis
 Test with an experiment
 Analyze data and draw conclusions
 Communicate results
 Ask Questions

Do background research

Construct hypothesis

Test with experiment

Analyze data and draw conclusions

Communicate results
 What is technology?
• Technology is the application of scientific
knowledge to the practical aims of
human life or to changing and
manipulating the human environment.
• The word technology originates from Greek
techne, "art, skill, of hand logia is the
collection of techniques, skills, methods and
processes used in the production of goods or
services or in the accomplishment of
objectives, such as scientific investigation.
• Technology can be the knowledge of
techniques, processes, etc.
• or it can be embedded in machines,
computers, devices and factories, which can
be operated by individuals without detailed
knowledge of the workings of such things such
as phones.
• According to Lan and Young (1996),
technology includes two basic
components
• (a) ‘Knowledge’ or technique
• (b) ‘Doing things’.
THE LINKAGES BETWEEN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
• Science and technology have been
recognized as important tools for
development.
• Many developed countries of the world
today achieved their level of
development through the adaptation of
technology and development of an
efficient S&T capacity.
• Any society without S&T capability
cannot but continue to remain
underdeveloped.
 ECONOMIC SOCIAL
INFRASTRUCTURES INFRASTRUCTURES

OUTCOMES
1.LITERACY
2. LIFE
SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT EXPECTANCE
TECHNOLOGY 3. FOOD
SECURITY
4. HOUSING
5. BETTER
POLITICAL STRUCTURES HEALTH
etc
AND PROCESSES
EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
 Science and Technology during Ancient
Times (Before 5th century)
• Science and technology started since
when early man appeared on earth.
• Remarkable progress in ancient times
include discovery of fire and stone tools
more than 600,000 year ago.
 Science and Technology from middle ages up to 19th Century

• This was the period of beginning of

modern science and technology
• Many discoveries of laws of modern
science were laid down during this
period especially between 15th and 19th
century.
• Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1726)
• Galileo Galilei(1564–1642)
• Charles Darwin (1809–1882)
• Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Science and Technology during 20th and 21st
Centuries
• This is the era of modern science and
technology.
• The era of revolutions in information and
communication technology (ICT) and
modern biotechnology.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
• Broad classification of societies
/countries by technological achievements
• (a) Industrialized (Developed countries)
countries.
• (b) Newly industrializing countries and
south-east Asian Countries.
• (c) Other developing countries.
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

• The developed countries have the

highest level of science and technology.
• Because of high level of science and
technology, they also have the highest
level of development.
• Technology was developed gradually
over centuries.
How did they manage to develop S&T

• No evidence of explicit science and

technology policies implemented.
• Economic growth policies that were
implemented by their governments
facilitated scientific and technological
innovations.
• Strategies used include:
Promoting domestic industrialization
Protecting domestic industries using
different measures
Promoting overseas trade
Colonial policies in some countries etc.
 NICs AND SOUTH-EAST ASIAN (SEA)
COUNTRIES
• The NICs developed their science and
technology quickly through acquiring and
imitating the mature technology of
developed countries.
• NB; NICs = new industrilized countries
• It took less than 25 years e.g. South
Korea because they managed to leap-
frog the initial stages of technology
development.
Why rapid technological catch-up?
• Some reasons include:
• (1) Forming of institutions for managing
the whole process of scientific and
technological transformation and
development.
• (2) Better education, access to education
and improved literacy rates.
 Adult Literacy rates in 1990

Country Literacy rate (%)

South Korea 96
Taiwan 90
Singapore 90
Malaysia 78.4
China 77.7
Tanzania 43
Uganda 48
• (3) Forming a strong partnership among
all the stakeholders.
• Stakeholders such as local scientists,
technologists, local research institutions,
education institutions, local firms, private
sector and the government.
• (4) Investment in R&D in Science and
Technology.
• Sub-Saharan Africa almost all countries
allocate less than 1% of the GDP for
R&D .
 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES-AFRICA

• These are least developed in terms of

S&T.
• The backwardness of African counties in
socio-economic development is partly
due to poor and underdeveloped science
and technology.
• Features of science and technology in
LDCs
• 1. Technological dependence.
• 2. Failure to adapt the transferred
technology.
• 3. Importation of hardware technology
and not software technology.
 EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY POLICIES IN TANAZANIA
 Colonial Period

• During colonial period, the colonial

government established research centres
to develop science and technology.
• Two features can be observed from
colonial S&T strategies:
• (a) They focused on Agricultural
technologies and human diseases
technologies.
• For instance, establishment of Central
Veterinary Laboratory at Mpwapwa in
1905 and health research centres.
• (b) Lack of focus on research in industrial
technologies.
 Post-colonial Period

• Like many African countries, Tanzania

started to be actively involved in S&T
development during post independence
period.
• Partly, international initiatives raised the
awareness for promoting S&T.
• Some of the international initiatives
include:
• (a) The 1963 UNESCO Initiative- it was
called United Nations Conference on
Application of Science and Technology
(UNCAST) held in 1963 in Geneva
• (b) United Nations Conference on
Science and Technology for Development
(UNCSTD)
• It was held in Vienna Austria in 1979.
• (c) The OAU Lagos Plan of Action
• It suggested various issues relating to
development of S&T such as:
• Formulation of national S&T policies
• Establishment of national S&T systems
(organs) and agencies
• Allocation of S&T budget equivalent to
1% of GDP.
 Local initiatives
• (a) Introduction of National S&T policy of
1985
• (b) Formation of Commission for Science
and Technology (COSTECH) in 1986.
• the establishment of the centre for
development and transfer of technology
(CDTT) in 1994
• (c) Formation of Ministry for Science,
Technology and Higher education in 1996.
• (d) Introduction of Science and
Technology Policy of 1996.
THE CHALLENGES FACING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY POLICY AND ITS
IMPLEMENTATION IN TANZANIA
• 1. Low priority to S&T
• 2. Declining quality of S&T education at
all levels of educational system.
• 3. Meagre or small budget allocated to
S&T.
• 4. Brain drain
• 5. Poor linkage between institutions for
the development of S&T and other
sectors such as industry and other
technical institutions.
• 6. Poor infrastructures for Research and
development for S&T.
 How to promote S&T in Africa
• 1. Accord the necessary priority to
Science and technology.
• 2. Reasonable budget allocation.
• 3. Cooperation of stakeholders and
countries.
• 4. Strengthening S&T research and
training institutions.
• 5. Promotion of public understanding of
Science and Technology.
• 6. Provision of incentives to scientists
and technologists.
• 7. Enhance the linkage between scientific
and technological research institutions
and other sectors.
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
 What is technology transfer?
• A process whereby technology is moved
from one physical or geographic location
to another for the purpose of application
toward an end product.
• This transfer can take place:
• (a) Domestically from one sector or firm
to another
• (b) Internationally across boundaries,
from one country to another.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

• (a) Vertical and horizontal

• (b) Formal (market mediated) and informal
(non-market mediated) e.g technical
assistance.
• (c) Direct or indirect.
• (d) Institutional and non-institutional
• (e) Material, design and capacity transfer
• (f) International or local (domestic)
 Material transfer

• It consists of the transfer of materials,

final products, components, equipment,
and even turnkey plants. In brief, this is a
transfer of the technological artefact (a
product of human art) itself.
 Design transfer

• It involves the movement of designs,

blueprints, and know-how to
manufacture previously designed
products or equipment.
• The major objective here is to provide
the basic information, data, and
guidelines needed to create a desired
capability.
 Capacity transfer

• It involves provision of the know-how

and software not simply to manufacture
existing products but, more importantly,
to innovate and adapt existing
technologies and products, and
ultimately design new products.
 MODES OF INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

• There are about ten major modes of

technology transfer namely:
• 1. Foreign direct investments (FDIs)
• 2. Joint ventures
• 3. Licensing agreements
• 4. Franchising
• 5. Management contracts
• 6. Turnkey contracts
• 7. International subcontracting
• 8. Training
• 9. Exchange programmes
• 10. Import of capital goods and
machineries
 Turnkey Contract

• It involves a supplier of a technology

providing a complete physical package of
technology.
• The turnkey contracts are also widely
used in transferring technology in heavy
industries including chemical, iron and
steel industries.
 Management Contracts
• A management contract is a legal
agreement that grants operational
control of a business initiative to a
separate group.
• agreement between investors or owners
of a project, and a management
company hired for coordinating and
overseeing a contract
• A management contract is an arrangement under
which operational control of an enterprise is
vested by contract in a separate enterprise that
performs the necessary managerial functions in
return for a fee.
• Management contracts involve not just selling a
method of doing things (as with franchising or
licensing) but involve actually doing them.
• A management contract can involve a wide range
of functions, such as technical operation and of a
production facility, management of personnel,
accounting, marketing services and training.
• Management contracts have been used to a
wide extent in the airline industry, and when
foreign government action restricts other entry
methods.
• Management contracts are often formed where
there is a lack of local skills to run a project.
• It is an alternative to foreign direct investment
as it does not involve as high risk and can
yield higher returns and international
recognition for the company.
 The Franchising Agreement

• It is a form of licensing agreement

between the franchiser and franchisee in
which the franchiser provides rights,
usually including the use of a trade mark
or brand name, plus the services of
technical assistance, merchandising,
training, and management in return for
certain payments.
 Licensing Agreements

• Licensing is the sale of manufacturing

technology by a multinational enterprise
(licensor) to a non-controlled entity
located outside the home country of the
multinational enterprise (licensee).
• In other words, a licensing agreement is
a legal contract under which the licensor
confers certain rights upon the licensee
for a specified duration in return for
certain payments (usually royalties).
 THE CHALLENGES FACING
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN
TRANSFERING AND
DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGY
• 1. Resistance from the owners of
technology.
• 2. Lack of developed infrastructure and
market for absorbing and sustaining the
transferred technology.
• 3. Importation of outdated or
inappropriate technology.
• 4. Weak bargaining power of LDCs.
• 5. Lack of proper strategies to adapt and
absorb the transferred technology.
• 6. Poverty and lack of capital.
• 7. Lack of strong entrepreneurial class.
 • End of fourth module

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