Artificial Intelligence

Lecturer: Mudasser Iqbal khan

 Goal
• We have discussed the basic concept of Intelligence
• We have also discussed about the basics of Artificial Intelligence
• We have studied various definition of AI and summarized into simple statement
• We found two points thought process and Behavior
• We found two categories of each.
• Now we will try to cover these categories with more detail
• We will also try to cover foundation of AI.
 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
approach
• The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed to provide a
satisfactory operational definition of intelligence.
• Turing defined intelligent behavior as the ability to achieve human-level
performance in all cognitive tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator.
• The test, which Turing called the imitation game, places the machine and a
human counterpart in rooms apart from a second human being, referred to as the
interrogator.
• the test is that the computer should be interrogated by a human via a teletype,
and passes the test if the interrogator cannot tell if there is a computer or a
human at the other end.
• The interrogator is asked to distinguish the computer from the human being
solely on the basis of their answers to questions asked over this device.
• If the interrogator cannot distinguish the machine from the human, then, Turing
argues, the machine may be assumed to be intelligent.
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• For now, programming a computer to pass the test, the computer would need to
possess the following capabilities:
natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English
(or some other human language)
knowledge representation to store information provided before or during the
interrogation;
automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to
draw new conclusions;
machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate
patterns.
• total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the interrogator can test the
subject's perceptual abilities. To pass the total Turing Test, the computer will need
computer vision to perceive objects
robotics to move them about.
 Some facts
• The interrogator is free, however, to ask any questions, no matter how tricky or indirect, in
an effort to discover the computer’s identity
• For example, the interrogator may ask both subjects to perform arithmetic calculation,
assuming that the computer will be more likely to get it correct than the human;
• To counter this strategy, the computer will need to know when it should fail to get a
correct answer to such problems in order to seem like a human.
• To discover the human’s identity on the basis of emotional nature, the interrogator may
ask both subjects to respond to a poem or work of art; this strategy will require that the
computer have knowledge concerning the emotional makeup of human beings.
• Machine intelligence is simply different from human intelligence.
• Do we really wish a machine would do mathematics as slowly and inaccurately as a
human?
• Shouldn’t an intelligent machine capitalize on its own assets, such as a large, fast, reliable
memory,
 Result
• So, there has not been a big effort to try to pass the Turing test.
• The issue of acting like a human comes up primarily when AI programs have to
interact with people, as when an expert system explains how it came to its
diagnosis, or a natural language processing system has a dialogue with a user.
• These programs must behave according to certain normal conventions of human
interaction in order to make themselves understood.
• The fundamental representation and reasoning in such a system may or may not
be based on a human model.
 Thinking humanly: The cognitive modelling approach
• If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have
some way of determining how humans think.
• There are two ways to do this: through introspection—trying to catch our own
thoughts as they go by—or through psychological experiments.
• If the program's input/output and timing behavior matches human behavior, that is
evidence that some of the program's mechanisms may also be operating in humans.
• Newell and Simon developed GPS (General Problem Solver) were not content to
have their program correctly solve problems. They were more concerned with
comparing the trace of its reasoning steps to traces of human subjects solving the
same problems.
• On the other side, Wang (1960) were concerned with getting the right answers
regardless of how humans might do it.
 Thinking rationally: The laws of thought approach
• The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "right
thinking," that is, irrefutable reasoning processes.
• His famous syllogisms (slogan) provided patterns for argument structures that
always gave correct conclusions given correct evidence.
• For example, given evidence “Shahid is a man; all men are mortal; then the
conclusion is “therefore Shahid is mortal.“
• These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of the mind, and
initiated the field of logic.
• By 1965, programs existed that could, given enough time and memory, take a
description of a problem in logical notation and find the solution to the problem,
if one exists.
• (If there is no solution, the program might never stop looking for it.) The so-
called logicist tradition within artificial intelligence hopes to build on such
programs to create intelligent systems.
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• There are two main obstacles to this approach. First, it is not easy to take informal
knowledge and state it in the formal terms required by logical notation, particularly
when the knowledge is less than 100% positive.
• Second, there is a big difference between being able to solve a problem "in
principle" and doing so in practice.
• Even problems with just a few dozen facts can consume the computational
resources of any computer unless it has some guidance as to which reasoning steps
to try first.
Acting rationally: The rational agent
approach
• Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one's goals, given one's beliefs.
• An agent is just something that perceives and acts (eg human is an agent who
perceive and acts).
• In the "laws of thought" approach to AI, the whole importance was on correct
inferences.
• Making correct inferences is sometimes part of being a rational agent, because one
way to act rationally is to reason logically to the conclusion that a given action will
achieve one's goals, and then to act on that conclusion.
• Correct inference is not all of rationality, because there are often situations where
there is no provably correct thing to do.
• There are also ways of acting rationally that cannot be reasonably said to involve
inference.
• For example, pulling one's hand off of a hot stove is a reflex action that is more
successful than a slower action taken after careful deliberation.
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• The study of AI as rational agent design therefore has two advantages.
• First, it is more general than the "laws of thought" approach, because correct
inference is only a useful mechanism for achieving rationality, and not a necessary
one.
• Second, it is more amenable to scientific development than approaches based on
human behavior or human thought, because the standard of rationality is clearly
defined and completely general.
• Human behavior, on the other hand, is well-adapted for one specific environment
and is the product, in part, of a complicated and largely unknown evolutionary
process that still may be far from achieving perfection.
References
• Artificial Intelligence A modern Approach, Stuart J. Russell and Peter
Norvig.

• Artificial Intelligence, Structure and strategies for complex problem

solving, 6 edition, George F Luger