M1-M3:

Matrices and
Systems of Equations
MAA1013 - MATRIKS DAN VEKTOR - IE

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Contents:
1. Systems of Linear Equations
Week 1
2. Row Echelon Form
3. Matrix Arithmetic
Week 2
4. Matrix Algebra
5. Elementary Matrices
Week 3
6. Partitioned Matrices

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1. Systems of
Linear
Equations
M1: Matrices and Systems of Equations

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Matrices and Systems of Equations
Probably the most important problem in mathematics is that of solving
a system of linear equations. Well over 75 percent of all mathematical
problems encountered in scientific or industrial applications involve
solving a linear system at some stage. By using the methods of modern
mathematics, it is often possible to take a sophisticated problem and
reduce it to a single system of linear equations. Linear systems arise in
applications to such areas as business, economics, sociology, ecology,
demography, genetics, electronics, engineering, and physics. Therefore,
it seems appropriate to begin this book with a section on linear systems.

(Leon, 2014)
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Systems of Linear Equations
•A  linear equation in n unknowns is an equation of the form

where a1, a2, . . . , an and b are real numbers and x1, x2, . . . , xn are variables.

A linear system of m equations in n unknowns is then a system of the form

m × n linear
systems
where the aij’s and the bi’s are all real numbers.

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 Example of m × n linear systems
𝑥1 +2 𝑥2 =5 𝑥1 − 𝑥 2+𝑥 3 =2 𝑥1 +𝑥 2=2
     

2 × 2 systems 2 × 3 systems
3 × 2 systems
Solutions

1∙(1)+2∙(2)=5
 
1∙(2)−1∙(0)+1∙(0)=2
   

  ( 1,2)  (2 ,𝛼 ,𝛼)   ()

2-tuple 3-tuple
No Solution
Single Solution Many Solutions

consistent inconsistent 6
 2 × 2 Systems
•A  system of the form:

Example

𝑥1 +𝑥 2=2
 
𝑥1 +𝑥 2=2
 
𝑥1 +𝑥 2=2
 

Inconsistent Any point is

No solution Solution

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 Equivalent Systems (1)
Consider the two systems:
(a) (b)

Solutions

3𝑥1 +2𝑥2 −𝑥3=−2 3𝑥1 +2𝑥2 +𝑥3=2

   
 

 Solution of the system = any solution of system (b) must also be a solution of system (a)

any solution of (a) is also a solution of (b) (x1, x2, x3) is a solution of system (b) if and only if it is a solution
    of system (a)

Both systems have the same solution set, {(−2, 3, 2)}

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Equivalent Systems (2)
Definition:
Two systems of equations involving the same variables are said to be
equivalent if they have the same solution set.

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Equivalent Systems (3)
The reordered system will be equivalent to the original system.
and
and

If one equation of a system is multiplied through by a nonzero real number, this will have no effect on the
solution set, and the new system will be equivalent to the original system.
and
and

If a multiple of one equation is added to another equation, the new system will be equivalent to the
original system.

𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏
 
𝑖1 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝑖
if and only if it satisfies  
the equations 𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 𝑛=𝑏𝑖
𝑖1 1 𝑖𝑛
This follows since the n-tuple (x1, . . . , xn) will satisfy the two
equations 10
Equivalent Systems (4)
To summarize, there are three operations that can be used on a system to
obtain an equivalent system:

I. The order in which any two equations are written may be

interchanged.
II. Both sides of an equation may be multiplied by the same nonzero real
number.
III. A multiple of one equation may be added to (or subtracted from)
another.

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 n × n Systems (1)
A system is said to be in strict triangular form if, in the kth equation, the
coefficients of the first k − 1 variables are all zero and the coefficient of
xk is nonzero (k = 1, . . . , n).
Example 1 Example 2

3𝑥1 +2𝑥2 +𝑥3=1 2𝑥1 −𝑥2+3𝑥3−2𝑥4=1

   

Method of solving a strictly

triangular system is back
substitution
The solution of the
system is (-3, 4, 2) The solution is (1, −1, 0, 1)

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 n × n Systems (2) – Example 3 (Linear System form)

𝑥1 +2𝑥2 +𝑥3=3
 

Solutions
Subtracting 3 times the first row from the second row yields  The third equation of this system is replaced by
the sum of the third equation and times the
−7
  𝑥 2 − 6 𝑥 3 =−10
second equation, the strictly triangular system:
Subtracting 2 times the first row from the third row yields
−  𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 =−2  
The second and third equations of our system, respectively, are
replaced by these new equations, the equivalent system:
 
 
Using back substitution:
,,

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 n × n Systems (2) – Example 3 (Matrix Form)
𝑥1 +2𝑥2 +𝑥 3=3
  1 2 1 1 2 1 3
3 -1 -3 3 -1 -3 -1
2 3 1 2 3 1 4
coefficient matrix augmented matrix
Notations ⋯
⋯
a 11 a 11 a 1n
⋮ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
a 21 a 22 a 2n
A = ⋯
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a 11 a 1n b 11 b 1r a 11 a 1n b 1r
a m1 a m2 a mn ⋯
⋯ ⋯ ⋯
(A |B) = or
⋯
b 11 b 11 b 1r a m1 a mn b m1 b mr a m1 a mn b mr
⋮
b 21 b 22 b 2r
B = ⋯

b m1 b m2 b mr

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Elementary Row Operations
(Operasi Baris Elementer
(OBE))
I. Interchange two rows.
II. Multiply a row by a nonzero
real number.
III. Replace a row by its sum with a
multiple of another row.

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n × n Systems (2) – Example 3 (Matrix Form Solution)
1 2 1 3 pivotal row (pivot a11 = 1)
3 -1 -3 -1 The first nonzero entry
2 3 1 4 in the pivotal row is
called the pivot
1 2 1 3
0 -7 -6 -10 pivotal row
0 -1 -1 -2

1 2 1 3
0 -7 -6 -10
0 0 -1/7 -4/7  

 Using back substitution:

,,
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Elementary Row Operations – Example 4
Solve the system Solution
  0 -1 -1 1 0 Interchange the 1 1 1 1 6 pivotal row
1 1 1 1 6 first two rows of 0 -1 -1 1 0 (pivot a11 = 1)
2 4 1 -2 -1 the augmented 2 4 1 -2 -1
3 1 -2 2 3 matrix. 3 1 -2 2 3

Eliminate the two nonzero entries in the first column:

1 1 1 1 6 The second row is used as the 1 1 1 1 6

0 -1 -1 1 0 pivotal row to eliminate the 0 -1 -1 1 0
0 2 -1 -4 -13 entries in the second column 0 0 -3 -2 -13
0 -2 -5 -1 -15 below the pivot element −1 0 0 0 -1 -2

Solving by back
1 1 1 1 6 The third row is used as the substitution,
0 -1 -1 1 0 pivotal row to eliminate the the solution
0 0 -3 -2 -13 last element in the third = (2, −1, 3, 2)
0 0 -3 -3 -15 column
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Elementary Row Operations

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2. Row Echelon
Form
M1: Matrices and Systems of Equations

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Example 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 pivotal row 1 1 1 1 1 1  
-1 -1 0 0 1 -1 0 0 1 1 2 0
-2 -2 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 1 3
0 0 1 1 3 -1 0 0 0 0 1 -1 There are no 5-tuples that could satisfy the
1 1 2 2 4 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 equations, the system is inconsistent.

1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 2 0 pivotal row 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 2 2 5 3 0 0 1 1 2 0
0 0 1 1 3 -1 0 0 0 0 1 3
0 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 -4
0 0 0 0 0 -3

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Example 1 (Modified)
1 1 1 1 1 1  
-1 -1 0 0 1 -1
-2 -2 0 0 3 1
0 0 1 1 3 3  
1 1 2 2 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 The variables corresponding to the first nonzero elements in each row of the reduced
0 0 1 1 2 0 matrix will be referred to as lead variables (e.g.: x1, x3, and x5).
0 0 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 The remaining variables corresponding to the columns skipped in the reduction
0 0 0 0 0 0 process will be referred to as free variables (e.g.: x2 and x4)
 

(4, 0, −6, 0, 3) is a solution of the system

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Definition
A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if:
(i) The first nonzero entry in each nonzero row is 1.
(ii) If row k does not consist entirely of zeros, the number of leading zero entries in row k + 1 is
greater than the number of leading zero entries in row k.
(iii) If there are rows whose entries are all zero, they are below the rows having nonzero entries.

Example of row echelon form Example of not row echelon form If the row echelon form of the
1 4 2 1 3 1 0 2 4 6 augmented matrix contains a
0 1 3 0 0 1 3 0 3 5 0 1 row of the form⋯
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0
0 0 0 1

1 2 3 0 0 0 the system is inconsistent.

0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0
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Gaussian elimination
The process of using row operations I, II, and III to transform a linear
system into one whose augmented matrix is in row echelon form is
called Gaussian elimination.

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Overdetermined Systems
A linear system is said to be overdetermined if there are more
equations than unknowns.
Example 4
(a) (b) (c)

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 Example 4
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1
System (a): System (b): System (c):
2 -1 1 2 2 -1 1 2
1 -1 3 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 4
-1 2 -2 2 -1 3 5 3 1 2 3

1 2 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 1 1
0 1 0.2 0
0 1 0.2 0
system is 0 1 -1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1.5
0 0 0 0
inconsistent 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

 
One solution (0.1, −0.3, 1.5)

Many solutions with solution set

(1−0.6α, −0.2α, α),
where α is a real number.
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Underdetermined Systems
A system of m linear equations in n unknowns is said to be underdetermined if there are
fewer equations than unknowns (m < n).
Example 5
(a) (b)

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Example 5
System (a): 1 2 1 1 System (b): 1 1 1 1 1 2
2 4 2 3 1 1 1 2 2 3
1 1 1 2 3 2

system is 1 2 1 1
inconsistent 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 2
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 -1

System (b) is consistent, and since there are two free variables, the system will
have infinitely many solutions.

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Reduced Row Echelon Form (Gauss–Jordan reduction)
A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if
(i) The matrix is in row echelon form.
(ii) The first nonzero entry in each row is the only nonzero entry in its
column.

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Example 5 (Continued)
1 1 1 1 1 2  
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 -1

1 1 1 1 0 3 The 5-tuple (1−α−β, α, β, 2, −1) is a solution of the system.

0 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0 1 -1

1 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0 1 -1

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APPLICATION 1 - Traffic Flow
In the downtown section of a certain
city, two sets of one-way streets
intersect as shown. The average
hourly volume of traffic entering and
leaving this section during rush hour
is given in the diagram. Determine
the amount of traffic between each
of the four intersections.

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 Traffic Flow (Solution)
At each intersection the number of automobiles entering must be the same as the number leaving.

  (intersection A):
(intersection B):
(intersection C):
(intersection D):

1 -1 0 0 160 1 0 0 -1 330
0 1 -1 0 -40 0 1 0 -1 170
0 0 1 -1 210 0 0 1 -1 210
-1 0 0 1 -330 0 0 0 0 0

The system is consistent, and since there is a free variable,

there are many possible solutions (depends on x4)

For example, if the amount of traffic between intersections C  

and D averages 200 automobiles per hour, then x4=200.
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Homogeneous Systems
A system of linear equations is said to be homogeneous if the constants on the right-hand side are
all zero. Homogeneous systems are always consistent.

Theorem 1.2.1
An m × n homogeneous system of linear equations has a nontrivial solution if n > m.

Proof
A homogeneous system is always consistent. The row echelon form of the matrix can have at most
m nonzero rows. Thus there are at most m lead variables. Since there are n variables altogether
and n > m, there must be some free variables. The free variables can be assigned arbitrary values.
For each assignment of values to the free variables, there is a solution of the system.

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APPLICATION 4 - Economic Models for Exchange of Goods
(1)
Suppose that in a primitive society the
members of a tribe are engaged in three
occupations: farming, manufacturing of tools
and utensils, and weaving and sewing of
clothing. Assume that initially the tribe has
no monetary system and that all goods and
services are bartered. Let us denote the three
groups by F, M, and C, and suppose that the
directed graph indicates how the bartering
system works in practice.

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APPLICATION 4 - Economic Models for Exchange of Goods
(2)
The figure indicates that the farmers keep half of
their produce and give one-fourth of their
produce to the manufacturers and one-fourth to
the clothing producers. The manufacturers divide
the goods evenly among the three groups, one-
third going to each group. The group producing
clothes gives half of the clothes to the farmers
and divides the other half evenly between the
manufacturers and themselves. The result is
summarized in the following table:

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APPLICATION 4 - Economic Models for Exchange of Goods
(3)
The first column of the table indicates the distribution of the goods produced by
the farmers, the second column indicates the distribution of the manufactured
goods, and the third column indicates the distribution of the clothing.
As the size of the tribe grows, the system of bartering becomes too cumbersome
and, consequently, the tribe decides to institute a monetary system of exchange.
For this simple economic system, we assume that there will be no accumulation
of capital or debt and that the prices for each of the three types of goods will
reflect the values of the existing bartering system. The question is how to assign
values to the three types of goods that fairly represent the current bartering
system.

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APPLICATION 4 - Economic Models for Exchange of Goods
(Solutions)
Nobel Prize-winning economist Wassily Leontief

-0.50 0.33 0.50 0

 
0.25 -0.67 0.25 0
0.25 0.33 -0.75 0

1.00 0.00 -1.67 0

0.00 1.00 -1.00 0
  0.00 0.00 0.00 0

There is one free variable: x3.

Setting x3 = 3, we obtain the solution (5, 3, 3)

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Reference
• Leon, S. J. (2014). Linear algebra with applications (9th ed.). Upper
Saddle River: Pearson.

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