CONCEPTS FOR

PLANNING WATER RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVES:

OBJECTIVES:
BE ABLE TO KN OW :
1 . PRINCI PLES OF PLANN ING W ATER RESO URCE PROJECTS

2. PLA NNING F OR PRI ORI TIZIN G WATER RESOURCE PRO JECTS

3. CONCEPT O F BASIN -W ISE P ROJECT DEVELOPMENT

4. DEMAND O F W ATER WI THI N A BASI N

5. STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTI ON FOR W ATER PROJECTS

6. CONCEPT O F I NTER-BASI N W ATER TRANSFER PROJE CT

7. TASKS FOR PLANNIN G A WA TER RESOURCE PROJEC T

Introduction
The earliest dams to retain water in large quantities were
constructed in Jawa (Jordan) at about 3000 BC and in Wadi
Garawi (Egypt) at about 2660 BC.

The Roman engineers had built log water conveyance

systems, many of which can still be seen today, Qanats or
underground canals that tap an alluvial fan on mountain
slopes and carry it over long distances, were one of the most
ingenious of ancient hydro-technical inventions, which
originates in Armenia around 1000 BC and were found in
SCIENTIFIC
STRATEGY DUE TO:
1. GRADUAL DECREASES OF PER CAPITA AVAILABLE

WATER ON THIS PLANET AND ESPECIALLY IN OUR

COUNTRY.

2. WATER BEING USED FOR MANY PURPOSES AND

THE
DEMANDS VARY IN TIME AND SPACE.

3. WATER AVAILABILITY IN A REGION – LIKE COUNTY

OR
STATE OR WATERSHED IS NOT EQUALLY
DISTRIBUTED.
I. WATER RESOURCES PROJECT PLANNING
The goals of water resources project planning may be by the
use of constructed facilities, or structural measures, or by
management and legal technique that do not require
constructed facilities. The latter are called non-structural
measures and may include rules to limit or control water and
land use which compliment or substitute for constructed
facilities. A project may consist of one or more structural or
non-structural resources. Water resources planning techniques
are used to determine what measures should be employed to
meet water needs and to take advantage of opportunities for
water resource development, and also to preserve and enhance
natural water resources and related land resources.
The scientific and technological development has been conspicuously
evident during the twentieth century in major fields of engineering. But
since water resources have been practiced for many centuries, the
development in this field may not have been as, say, for computer
sciences. However, with the rapid development, of substantial
computational
power resulting reduced computation cost, the planning strategies have
seen new directions in the last century which utilizes the best of the
computer sources. Further, economic considerations used to be the
guiding constraint for planning water resource project. But during the
last couple of decade of the 20th century there has been a growing
awareness for environmental sustainability. And now, environmental
constrains find a significant place in the water resource project (or for
that
matter any development project) planning besides the usual economic
and social constraints
II. PRIORITIES FOR WATER RESOURCES
PLANNING
Water resource projects are constructed to develop
or manage the available water resources for different
purposes. According to the National Water Policy
(2002) the water allocation priorities for planning and
operation of water resource systems should be
broadly as follows:
1. Domestic consumption
This includes water requirements primarily for
drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of clothes and
utensils and flushing of toilets.

2. Irrigation
Water required for growing crops in a systematic
and scientific manner in areas even with deficit
rainfall.
3. Hydropower
This is the generation of electricity by harnessing the power
of flowing water.

4. Ecology / environment restoration

Water required for maintaining the environmental health of
a region.

5. Industries
The industries require water for various purposes and that
by thermal power station is quite high.
6. Navigation
Navigation possibility in rivers may be enhanced by
increasing the depth of water required to allow larger
vessels to pass.
7. Other Uses
Like entertainment of scenic natural view

This course on WRE broadly discusses the facilities to be

constructed / augmented to meet the demand for the
above
uses. Many a times, one project may serve more than one
purpose of the above mentioned uses.
III. BASIN-WISE WATER RESOURCE PROJECT
DEVELOPMENT

The total land area that contributes water to a river is

called a Watershed, also called differently as the
Catchment, River Basin, Drainage Basin, or simply a
Basin.
A Watershed may also be defined as geographic area that
drains to a common point, which makes it an attractive
planning unit for technical efforts to conserve soil and
maximize the utilization of surface and subsurface water for
crop production. Thus, it is generally considered that water
resources development and management schemes should be
planned for a hydrological unit such as Drainage Basin as a
whole or for a Sub-Basin, multi-sectorially, taking into accoun
surface and groundwater for sustainable use incorporating
quantity and quality aspects as well as environmental
considerations.
Let us look into the concept of watershed or basin-wise projec
development in some detail. The objective is to meet the
demands of water within the Basin with the available water
therein, which could be surface water, in the form of rivers,
lakes, etc. or as groundwater. The source for all these water
bodies is the rain occuring over the Watershed or perhaps the
snowmelt of the glacier within it, and that varies both
temporally and spatially.
Further due to the land surface variations the rain falling over
land surface tries to follow the steepest gradient as overland
flow and meets the rivers or drains into lakes or ponds. The
time for the overland flows to reach the rivers may be fast or
slow depending on the obstructions and detentions it meet on
the way. Part of the water from either overland flow or from
the rivers and lakes penetrates into the ground and recharge
the groundwater.
Groundwater as thus available almost throughout the
watershed, in the underground aquifers. The variation of the
water table is also fairly even, with some rise during rainfall
and a gradual fall at other times. The water in the rivers is
mostly available during the rains. When the rain stops, part
of the groundwater comes out to recharge the rivers and that
results in the dry season flows in rivers.
IV. TOOLS FOR WATER RESOURCES PLANNING
AND
MANAGEMENT
the supply of water
the demand of water
1. The supply of water
Water available in the unit
This may be divided into three sources:
- Rain falling within the region. This may be utilized
directly before it reaches the ground, for example, the
- Surface water bodies. These static (lakes and
ponds) and flowing (streams and rivers), water
bodies may be utilized for satisfying the demand of
the unit, for example by constructing dams across
rivers.

- Groundwater reservoirs. The water store in soil

and pores of fractured bed rock may be extracted
to meet the demand, for example wells or tube –
wells..
Water transferred in and out of the unit
If the planning is for a watershed or basin, then generally
the water available within the basin is to be used unless
there is inter basin water transfer. If however, the unit is
political entity, like nation or a state, then definitely there
shall be inflow or outflow of water especially that of
flowing surface water. Riparian rights have to be honored
and extraction of more water by the upland unit may
result in severe tension.
Regeneration of water within the unit
Brackish water may be converted with appropriate technolog
to supply sweet water for drinking and has been tried in many
extreme water scarce areas. Waste water of households may
be recycled, again with appropriate technology, to supply
water suitable for purposes like irrigation.
2. The demand of water
Domestic water requirements for urban population
This is usually done through an organized municipal
water distribution network. This water is generally
required for drinking, cooking, bathing and sanitary
purposes, etc., for the urban areas. According to
National Water Policy(2002), domestic water supplies
for urban areas under various conditions are given
below. The units mentioned lcpd” stands for Liters
per Capita per Day.
1. 40 lcpd where only spot sources are available

2. 70 lcpd where piped water supply is available but no

sewerage system.

3. 125 lcpd where piped water supply and sewerage system

are both available. 150 lcpd may be allowed for metro
cities.
Domestic and livestock water requirements for rural
population
This may be done through individual effort of the users by
tapping a local available source or through co-operative
efforts, like Panchayats or Block Development Authorities.
The accepted norms for rural water supply accdg to National
Water Policy (2002) under various conditions are given below.
1. 40 lcpd or one hand pump for 250 persons with a
walking distance of 1.6 km or elevation difference
of 100 m in hills.
2. 30 lcpd additional for cattle in Desert Development
Programme (DDP) areas.
Irrigation water requirements of cropped fields
Irrigation may be done through individual effort of the farmers or
through group cooperation bet. farmers, like Farmer’s Cooperatives.
The demands have to be estimated based on the cropping problem
which may vary over the land unit due to various factors like, farmer
choice, soil type, climate, etc. Actually, the term “Irrigation Water
Demand” denotes the total quantity and the way in which a crop
requires water, from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested.

Industrial water needs

This depends on the type of industry, its magnitude and the quantity
of water required per unit of production.
V. STRUCTURAL TOOLS FOR WATER
RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT

This section discusses the common structural options available to

the Water Resource Engineer to develop the water potential of the
region to its best possible extent.
a. Dams b. Barrages c. Canals / tunnels
Dams
There are detention structures for strong water of streams and
rivers.
Barrages
These are diversion structures which help to divert a portion of the
stream and river to meeting demands for irrigation or hydropower.
They also help to increase the level of the water slightly which may
be advantageous from the point of view of increasing navigability
or to provide a pond from where water may be drawn to meet
domestic or industrial water demand.
Canals / Tunnels
These are conveyance structures for transporting water over long distances for
irrigation or hydropower.

These structural options are used to utilize surface water to its maximum
possible extent. Other structures for utilizing ground water include rainwater
detention tanks, wells and tube wells. Another option that is important for any
water resource project is Watershed Management practices. Through these
measures, the water falling within the catchment area is not allowed to move
quickly to drain into the rivers and streams. This helps the rainwater to
saturate the soil and increase the groundwater reserve. Moreover, these
measures
reduce the amount of erosion taking place on the hill slopes and thus helped in
increasing the effective lives of reservoirs which otherwise would have been
VI. MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR WATER
RESOURCE
PLANNING
The following management strategies are important for water
resources planning.
• Water related allocation/re-allocation agreements between
planning units sharing common water resource.
• Subsidies on water use.
• Planning of releases from reservoirs over time
• Planning of withdrawal of groundwater with time
• Planning of cropping patterns of agricultural fields to optimize
the water availability from rain and irrigation 9using surface
and/or groundwater sources) as a function of time.
• Creating public awareness to reduce wastage of water, especially
filtered drinking water and to inculcate the habit of recycling waste
water for purposes like gardening.

• Research in water management. Well established technological

inputs are in verge in water resources engineering which were
mostly evolved over the last century. Since, then not much of
innovation have been put forward. However, it is equally known
that quiet a few of these technologies run below optimum desired
efficiency. Research in this field is essential for optimizing.
An example for this is the seepage loss in canals and loss
of water during application of water in irrigating the fields.
As an indication, it may be pointed out that in India, of the water
that is diverted through irrigation canals up to the crop growing
fields, only about half is actually utilized for plant growth. This
example is also glaring since agriculture sector takes most of the
water for its assumption from the developed project on water
resources.

A good thrust in research is needed to increase the water

application efficiently which, in turn, will help optimizing the
system.
VII. INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER
It is possible that the water availability in a basin (Watershed)
is not sufficient to meet the maximum demands within the basin.
This would require inter-basin water transfer.
.The possible quantity of water that may be transferred by
donor basin may be equal to the average water availability
of basin minus maximum possible water requirement within
basin (considering future scenarios)
Note: A donor basin is the basin, which is supplying water to the
downstream basin.
A recipient basin is the basin which is receiving the water
from the Donor Basin.
Possible components of an inter-basin
transfer project include the following:
• Storage Dam in Donor basin to store flood
runoff
• Conveyance structure, like canal, to transfer
water from donor to recipient basin.
• Possible pumping equipment to raise
water across watershed divide.
Possible implications of inter-basin transfer:
Since a large scale water transfer would be
required, it is necessary to check whether there
shall be any of the following:
• River bed level rise or fall due to possible silt deposition or
removal.
• Groundwater rise or fall due to possible excess or deficit
water seepage.
• Ecological imbalance due to possible disturbance of flora
and fauna habitat.
• Desertification due to prevention of natural flooding.
• Transfer of dissolved salts, suspended sediments, nutrients,
• Trace elements, etc. from one basin to another.
VIII. TASKS FOR PLANNING A WATER RESOURCE
PROJECT
• Analysis of basic data like maps, remote sensing images,
geological data, hydrologic data, and requirement of
water use data, etc.
• Selection of alternative sites based on economic aspects
generally, but keeping in mind environmental degradation
aspects.
• Studies for dam, reservoir, diversion structure, conveyance
structure, etc.
- Selection of capacity
- Selection of type of dam and spillway
- Layout of structures
- Analysis of foundation of structures
 - Development of construction plan
- Cost estimates of structures, foundation strengthening
measures, etc.
• Studies for local protective works- levees, riverbank revetment, etc.
• Formulation of optimal combination of structural and non-
structural
components (for projects with flood control component).
• Economic and financial analysis, taking into account environmental
degradation, if any, as a cost.
• Environmental and sociological impact assessment.

Of the tasks mentioned above, the first five shall be dealt with in detail
in this course. However, we may mention briefly the last two before
closing this chapter.
IX. ENGINEERING ECONOMY IN WATER
I

RESOURCES PLANNING
All Water Resources projects have to be cost
evaluated. This is an essential part of planning.
Since, generally, such projects would be funded by
the respective State Governments, in which the
project would be coming up it would be helpful for
the state planners to collect the desired amount of
money, like by issuing bonds to the public, taking
loans from a bank , etc. Since a project involves
money, iut is essential that the minimum amount
is spent, under the given constraints of p
project construction. Hence , a few feasible alternatives for a
project are usually worked out. For example, a project involving
a storage dam has to be located on a map of the river valley at
more than one possible location, if the terrain permits. In this
instance, the dam would generally be located at the narrowest
part of the valley to reduce cost of dam construction, but also a
couple of more alternatives would be selected since there would
be other features of a dam whose cost would dictate the total cost
of the project. For example, the foundation could be weak for the
first alternative and consequently require costly found
treatment, raising thereby the total project cost. At times, an
economically lucrative project site may be causing submergence
of a costly property, say an industry, whose relocation cost would
 
benefit of the alternative. On the other hand, the beneficial
returns may also vary. For example, the volume of water stored
behind a dam for one alternative of layout may not be the same
as that behind the another. Hence, what is required is to evaluate
the so-called Benefit-Cost Ratio defined as below:

Benefit – Cost Ratio =

The annual cost and benefits are worked out as under.

 Annual Cost (C) : The investment for a project is done in the
initial years during construction and then on operation and
maintenance during the project’s lifetime. The initial cost may be
met by certain sources like borrowing, etc. but has to be repaid
over a certain number of years, usually with an interest, to the
lender. This is called the Annual Recovery Costs, which, together
with the yearly maintenance cost would give the total Annual
Costs. It must be noted that there are many non-tangible costs,
which arise, due to the effect of the project on the environment
that has to be quantified properly and included in the annual
costs.
X. ASSESSMENT OF EFFECT ON
ENVIRONMENT
AND SOCIETY
This is a very important issue and all projects need to
have clearance from the Ministry of Environment and
Forests on aspects of impact that the project is likely
to have on the environment as well as on the social
fabric. Some of the adverse (negative) impacts, for
which steps have to be taken, are as follows:
• Loss of flora and fauna due to submergence
• Loss of land having agricultural, residential,
industrial, religious, archaeological importance.
• Rehabilitation of displaced persons.
• Reservoir induced seismicity.
• Ill-effect on riverine habitats of fish due to
blockage of the free river passage.
There would also be some beneficial (positive) impacts of
the project, like improvement of public health due to
availability of assured, clean and safe drinking water,
assured agricultural production, etc. There could even be
an improvement in the micro-climate of the region due to
the presence of a water body.

The End