KILN OPERATIONS

GUIDE LINES

June 2006 / Version 1

• Our objectives
• To produce more
• To produce with regularity
• To produce cheaper

• Stable kiln operation is key to achieving our objectives

Prerequisites
P1 - Raw mix preparation
P2 - Fuel preparation
P3 - Burner adjustment
P4 - Reliable sensors
P5 - Free lime follow-up
Rules
R1 - Constant kiln volume load
R2 - Constant cooler clinker bed depth
R3 - Predefined tables for cooler fans
R4 - Constant slightly negative kiln hood pressure
R5 - Constant Oxygen and in excess at kiln back end
R6 - Oxygen in excess at tower exit
R7 - Constant ID fan outlet pressure
R8 - Fuel amount proportional of to kiln feed rate –
Production ramp up
R9 - Constant calcination
R10 - Maximize production to minimize heat consumption

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P1 - Raw mix preparation

 Raw mix residues targets

100m 10%
200m 1%

 Lime saturation 100C Range between 90 and 98

LSF  depending on fuel ashes and
2.8S  1.18 A  0.65F quality target

100(2.8S  1.65 A  0.35F  C ) Range between –4 and +4

bc  depending on fuel ashes and
S  A F C quality target

C3S  4.07C  (7.6Ssol  6.72A  1.43F)

C3S is the potential C3S content of clinker when free lime is zero and
calculation LOI=0. (Potential C3S target also depends on the chemical
composition of the ashes generated by the fuel.)

Potential C3S contained in raw mix as target is more

sensitive than bc, LSF but bc, LSF calculations are
more robust since these 2 lime saturation factors are less
influenced by FX drifts.

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P1 - Raw mix preparation

 Effects of fuel ashes

• Fuel ashes exhibit a very significant deficit in C in relation to S content (very high lime deficiency)

• It must be compensated by using the lime from the raw mix to combine the excess S.

• The C3S of the raw mix that have to be designed will be higher than the targeted C 3S in clinker.

 Example C3Sclinker  a.C3Sraw mix  b.C3Sashes with (a  b)  1

when the free lime is zero

%Ash fuel
SHC .
b 100
Ratio(feed/clinker) . PCI fuel

Fue l Kiln
Calo rific Value He at Co ns.
ash Fe e d / kk
(PCI) (SHC)
J/ g % J/ g kk
24000 20,0 3500 1,54

b  0.019  a  0.981
C3Sclinker  b.C3Sashes
C3Sraw mix 
a
65 0.019 (-258)
C3Sraw mix   71.2
0.981
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P1 - Raw mix preparation

 Silica ratio
S
SR  SR: 2.3 to 3.0 constant at ± 0.05
A F

SR Burning Liquid phase Coating Clinker Cement

strength
Low Easy Excessive, Too thick, Balling, hard Low
attack to bricks unstable
High Hard Low, high No Dusty, high High
thermal load free lime

 Alumina ratio
A
AR  AR: 1.3 to 2.0 constant at ± 0.05
F

AR Liquid phase Clinker Cement strength

Low Fluid If AR<0,64 No Low early strength
C3A in clinker
High With low F, insufficient High early strength
liquid phase is formed
(Viscous liquid phase)

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P1 - Raw mix preparation

Kiln Feed Uniformity Index KFUI < 14

Average of the squared difference between a spot kiln feed sample C3S value and the C3S
target, on a daily basis

N
1 Combustion regularity
KFUI 
N
 (C
i 1
3 S i  C3 S T ) 2 Heat consumption
Kiln stability
Brick life
Effects on Clinker output
PROCESS Volatilization of SO3
Equipment life
Grindability (kWh/t)
KILN FEED
UNIFORMITY Cement mill output

Clinker quality
Regular clinker quality
Effects on  C3 S
PRODUCT  f-CaO
 Strengths
Cost
CC/CK ratio

• if KFUI > 30, an emergency action plan must be implemented

High KFUI: Possible reasons

Prehomogenization Variable materials quality

Mining Raw mill feeders accuracy

KILN FEED
UNIFORMITY
Blockages Homogenization

Analyser Kiln dust management

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P2 - Fuel preparation

Solid fuel residues

Target S fuel < 4% S fuel > 4%
0% 200 µm
< (0.5×VM*) % 90 µm 63 µm

*VM: volatile matter

Liquid fuel 
 
• Keep viscosity <25 cST to obtain satisfactory atomization
Viscosity decreases with higher fuel temperature
Fuel heating temperature to achieve required viscosity depends on fuel
oil type
Example: 120°C minimum for a bunker C fuel oil (n° 6)

• Filter at 125 µm to protect pumps and nozzles injectors

• Fuel atomizer type MY
The flow is adjusted by fuel pressure
and operates adequately for a flow
ranging between 80 and 100% of the
fuel scale. If the flow differs, the
orifice plate and atomizer must be
replaced.
On stabilized operations, pressure
nozzle remains around 40 bars
The primary / secondary pressure
differential allows the adjustment of
the divergence angle of the streams jet
(optimization)

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P3 – Burner adjustment

Line up the burner with the kiln axis using laser beam
To avoid that the flame licks:
• Either the material in the zone with the risk of local formation of CO and thus
volatilization of sulphates
• Either the walls with the risk of destroying coating and refractories

Flow rate at the burner must be constant at ± 1%

Flame must be:   
a. Sharp
b. Narrow
c. Strong
d. Attached to the burner (30 cm black plume)
e. Such that flame licks neither the bricks nor the clinker bed
  Lafarge burner
Influence of the rotational and Axial air on the flame

Impulse Swirl
Liquid 5,0 N.h. GCal-1 0,1
fuel
Coal 6,0 N.h. GCal-1 0,1
Coke 7,5 N.h. GCal-1 0,1

Gas 7,5 N.h. GCal-1 0,05

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P4 - Reliable sensors

Sensors Scales Comments

O2 0 /10% Measured inside the kiln (50 to

80 cm in the Kiln), Probe
positioned in the upper quarter
opposite the clinker bed
CO 0 / 3000 ppm “

NOx 0 / 2000 ppm “

SO2 0 / 30000 ppm Mandatory if fuel has high S

content
BZ temperature 0 / 2000°C Measured with pyrometric
camera
Calcination 0 / 1000°C Measured with representative
temperature and well placed thermocouple
probe (far from buildups)
Kiln hood pressure + 5 / - 10 mmWG Measured in 3 points, using large
diameter pipe tubes with can be
easily cleaned
Kiln amps

ID fan outlet pressure + 10 / - 50 mmWG

Cooler under grate 0 / 100 mbar Immediate chamber after static

pressure part or 2nd chamber
Clinker temperature 0 / 500°C Measured with pyrometer

Free lime 0 / 5%

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P5 - Qualifiers sensors for free lime

•The free lime content is an indicator of the

state of the burning
•Setting time is a function of the free
lime content.

Free lime analyzer = the last direct indicator of the quality for clinker burning
Amps
BZT NOx
F-CaO
GLW

Gamma
Advance 15 mn
NOx
Advance 25 mn
T Zone
Advance 35 mn
Amps

Advance 46 mn

•Take into account trends and not only values

• Free lime signification for well proportioned raw material
• Free CaO > 2.0% under burning
• 0.5% < Free CaO < 2.0% well burnt
• Free CaO < 0.5% over burning
•Free lime stability  free lime
FLUI  1
0.2  free lime  0.1
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R1 – Constant kiln load volume

Why?
Because Operating the kiln with an irregular bed depth
• Makes the clinker pour irregularly into the cooler
• Influences heat exchanges between gases and material
• Impacts on the state of combustion in the burning zone
• Makes the kiln torque signal to be less representative of the kiln state

Indicators
The kiln speed is proportional to the kiln feed

kiln speed = k ∙ kiln feed

The k factor characterizes each kiln

In general, maximum kiln speed is reached at maximum kiln feed

Recommended value
Kiln speed/kiln feed ratio has
•to be calculated by the process engineer
 Takes into account kiln dimensions, process, clinker reactivity.

Grate
Wet kiln Preheater Precalciner
preheater
1.2 rpm 1.2 rpm 2 rpm 3.5 rpm

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 For process with grate coolers

R2 – Constant cooler clinker bed depth

Why?
To maximise & regularise heat recuperation

Indicators
Constant bed depth
=
constant under grate pressure measured in the first chambers
=
Adjust cooler grate speed and never change the fan volume that impacts this under
grate pressure…

Recommended values
Cooler bed depth must be maximized.
On new cooler generations, the clinker bed depth measured on the first grate can
range from 500 to 800 mm.

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 For process with grate coolers

R3 – Predefined tables for cooler fans

Why?
• To maximise heat recovery
• To supply secondary and tertiary air
• To cool enough the clinker and avoid clinker transport problems and maintain cement
mills operation efficiency

Indicators
Air flows
Outlet cooler clinker temperature

Recommended values
•In the first chambers
•fluidized clinker bed
•fixed fan volume, air flow density must be constant
Chamber# 1 2 3
Air flow density (Nm3/m2/.s) 1,5 1,3 1

•In the last chambers

•non-fluidized bed
•cooler fan volume proportional to clinker production rate. Make specific air flow
(Nm3/kg clinker) adjustments in the last chambers to keep a Airflow/Clinker ratio
constant

Average air flow : 1,8 – 2,5 Nm3/kg clinker

•Clinker temperature at the cooler outlet

• Good performance = 100°C
• Unacceptable > 150°C (cement false set…)
• It is best to avoid having too cold clinker; the temperature inside the cement mill may not
be sufficient to form enough semi-hydrates in the cement.

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R4 – Constant slightly negative kiln
hood pressure
Why?
• Positive pressure gas/material puffing, spillages (safety issues)

If hood pressure is too Impact Risk of

negative
Hood air inleak  Discharge end ring
(false air)
Secondary air  CO

Levers
Controlled by cooler exhaust fan which extracts excess air from the cooler

Recommended values
Kiln hood pressure setting point
• –2 to –7 mmWG.
• depends on its stability: the more stable the pressure, the closer to zero it can be.

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 R5 – Constant oxygen & in excess
at kiln back end
Why?
• To avoid formation of CO which gives less energy where we want it
C + O2 CO2 + 97.6 kcal C + ½ O2 CO + 29.4 kcal

• To minimize volatilization & cyclic operations

• To guarantee uniform clinker quality especially

sulfate fluctuations

Levers
• Kiln back end O2
Increase Kiln back end O2 set point If
CO level at kiln back end > 100 ppm
Hot meal analysis on stage 4
• SO3 > 2,5 %

Recommended values
• For Precalciner kiln, the O2 set point ranges from 3 to 5%
••Kiln back deviation
Standard end O2 Standard deviation
measured by 1-minute average values over 24 hours
4,5

 O2  0.2%
3,5

• Very good if 2,5

2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 4,5

minute s
4

3,5

 O2  0.4%
3

2,5

• Very bad if 2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17

minut e s
19 21 2 2 2 2 31

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R6 – Oxygen in excess at tower exit

Why?
• Too low level of O2 will result in the formation of CO in preheater tower &
possible explosion in the electrostatic precipitator: When the CO produced finds
some oxygen, it burns as follows

CO + ½ O2 CO2 + 68.2 kcal Explosive reaction if there is a spark!

• Too high level of O2 will result in possible loss of production

Indicators
• Tower exit O2 value
• Also Take into account
Carbon included in the raw material
False air

Recommended values
• Generally 3% < O2 < 5%

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 For process with EP fan

R7 – Constant ID fan outlet pressure

Why?
• Stable pressure will prevent perturbations from raw mill, GCT to the kiln
If ID fan outlet pressure
positive

Circuit head loss

Fan curve

ID fan volumetric flow Qv


 O2 

Indicators
• ID fan outlet pressure must be controlled by the EP fan damper or variable speed
drive.

Recommended values
Depend on stability
ID fan outlet pressure must be slightly negative but as close to zero as possible (-10
mmWG).

If ID fan at the maximum limit with margin on EP fan, ID fan outlet pressure set
point can be more negative.

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 R8 – fuel amount proportional to kiln
feed rate – Production ramp up
Why?
Kiln feed increase Fuel t/h
8,00

7,00

more material to be burned 6,00

5,00 B
4,00

proportional fuel increase 3,00

Fuel = A ∙ kiln feed + B 2,00

1,00 A
B = constant function of heat wall losses 0,00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Kiln feed t/h

Ratio Kiln Speed

Feed rate

Ratio Burner Fuel Ratio Draft

Indicators
• Kiln specific heat
SHC Specific Heat
Consumption
kcal/k ck
1200

consumption (SHC) 1175

1150
1125
1100
1075
1050
1025
1000
975
A
950
925
900
875
850 B
825
800
18 23 28 33 38 43 48 53 58

Recommended values Clinker t/h

•Create operation table for kiln feed to •Questions to be raised in case of drift on
fuel rate taking in consideration SHC (A or B)
• Kiln specific heat consumption • Calibration of the feeders
• Heat wall losses • Raw mix chemistry
• Fuel calorific value • Raw mix uniformity
• Fuel Calorific Value

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 For process with secondary burner

R9 – Constant Calcination

Why?
To avoid a shift of the burning zone.
Ignition point = Start of liquid phase

Calcination 

Calcination 

Indicators
Bottom cyclones and riser duct temperatures
Calcination level of bottom cyclones hot meal

Recommended values
•Calcination level is controlled by temperature probe considered as representative
(bottom cyclones, riser duct) with a control loop acting on secondary burner fuel rate.
Set point around 850°C
•The main burner / secondary burner ratio must be mastered on continuous basis to
detect any drift (probe build-ups…). The main burner / secondary burner ratio does
not vary too much (example: Precalciner kiln main burner = 40%, secondary = 60%)
Type of kiln % calcination
Preheater AT 55 - 70%
Preheater AS 90 – 92%

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R10 – Maximize production to minimize
Heat consumption
Why?
The maximum production
minimizes the heat
consumption:

Indicators
• If the ID fan is at nominal ventilation : the only actuator to maintain kiln condition is
the feed rate
• If the ID fan is below nominal ventilation, give priority to feed rate and use fuel and
ID fan to control combustion

Recommended values

ID fan draught margin

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TECHNICAL CENTER EUROPE-AFRICA
Burning Environment Department
95, rue du Montmurier - BP 17
38291 St-Quentin-Fallavier Cedex - France
Tel. + 33 4 74 82 16 16