NETWORKING 2

IT 219: LESSON IV
 OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven
layers that computer systems use to communicate over a
network. It was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler

TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer model concept is still
widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks
operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking
problems.
 OSI Model
OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer
and telecom companies, and was adopted by ISO as an international
standard in 1984.

The OSI 7 Layers

7 Application Layer
6 Presentation Layer
5 Session Layer
4 Transport Layer
3 Network Layer
2 Data Link Layer
1 Physical Layer
OSI Model
 OSI Model
7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as
web browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that
allow software to send and receive information and present
meaningful data to users.
Examples of application layer protocols are:
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Post Office Protocol (POP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS).
 OSI Model
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the
application layer. It defines how two devices
should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is
received correctly on the other end. The
presentation layer takes any data transmitted by
the application layer and prepares it for
transmission over the session layer.
 OSI Model
5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication
channels, called sessions, between devices. It is
responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they
remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when
communication ends. The session layer can also
set checkpoints during a data transfer — if the
session is interrupted, devices can resume data
transfer from the last checkpoint.
 OSI Model
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the
session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the
segments on the receiving end, turning it back into
data that can be used by the session layer.
The transport layer carries out flow control, sending
data at a rate that matches the connection speed of
the receiving device, and error control, checking if
data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it
again.
 OSI Model
3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is
breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end.
The other is routing packets by discovering the
best path across a physical network. The network
layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a
destination node.
 OSI Model
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a
connection between two physically-connected nodes on
a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends
them from source to destination. This layer is composed
of two parts — Logical Link Control (LLC), which
identifies network protocols, performs error checking
and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control
(MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and
define permissions to transmit and receive data.
 OSI Model
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical
cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable
or wireless technology connecting the devices,
and is responsible for transmission of the raw data,
which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking
care of bit rate control.
 OSI Model
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI model helps users and operators of computer
networks:
• Determine the required hardware and software to build
their network.
• Understand and communicate the process followed by
components communicating across a network. 
• Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network
layer is causing an issue and focusing efforts on that
layer.
 OSI Model
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and
networking software vendors:
• Create devices and software that can communicate with
products from any other vendor, allowing open
interoperability
• Define which parts of the network their products should work
with.
• Communicate to users at which network layers their product
operates – for example, only at the application layer, or across
the stack.
 TCP/IP
The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model and was
created by the US Department of Defense
(DoD). A key difference between the models is
that TCP/IP is simpler, collapsing several OSI
layers into one:
• OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one
Application Layer in TCP/IP
 TCP/IP
• OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network
Access Layer in TCP/IP
• TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve
specific communication problems, and which
is based on specific, standard protocols.
• In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers
OSI Model
 Cross Layer Functions
Cross-layer functions, services that may affect more than one
layer,
include:
• Security service (telecommunication) provided by a layer of
communicating open systems, which ensures suitable
security of the systems or of data transfers.
• Management functions - functions that enable the
configuration, instantiation, monitoring and terminating of
the communications of two or more entities.
 Cross Layer Functions
• Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) - operates at an OSI-
model layer that lies between layer 2 (data link layer) and
layer 3 (network layer). MPLS can be used to carry a variety
of traffic, including Ethernet frames and IP packets.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - translates IPv4
addresses (OSI layer 3) into Ethernet Media Access
Control MAC addresses (OSI layer 2).
• Domain name service – an application layer service used to
look up the IP address of a domain name.
END OF LESSON IV