Burton's Microbiology

for the Health Sciences

Chapter 10. Microbial Ecology
and Microbial Biotechnology

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Chapter 10 Outline

• Introduction
• Symbiotic Relationships Involving Microorganisms
• Indigenous Microflora of Humans
• Beneficial and Harmful Roles of Indigenous Microflora
• Microbial Communities (Biofilms)
• Agricultural Microbiology
• Microbial Biotechnology

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 Indigenous Microflora of Humans

• Includes all the microbes

(bacteria, fungi, protozoa
and viruses) that reside on
and within a person;
sometimes referred to as
our “normal flora”
• Blood, lymph, spinal fluid,
and most internal tissues
and organs are normally free
of microorganisms (i.e., they
are sterile).
• Transient microflora take up
temporary residence on and
within humans.
• Destruction of resident
microflora disturbs the
delicate balance between
host and microorganisms.

Normal flora of the oral cavity

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Areas of the body where
most of the indigenous
microflora reside.
Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the Skin

– Primarily bacteria and
fungi – about 30 different
types; most common =
Staphylococcus spp.
– Number and variety of
microorganisms depend
on:
• Amount of moisture
present
• pH
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Presence of chemical
wastes and other
microbes

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Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the Ears and Eyes

– Middle ear and inner ear are usually sterile;
outer ear and auditory canal contain the
same microorganisms as on the skin
– Eye is lubricated and cleansed by tears,
mucus and sebum – few microorganisms
present

• Microflora of the Respiratory Tract

– Divided into upper respiratory tract (nasal
passages and throat) and lower respiratory
tract (larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs)

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Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the Respiratory Tract,

cont.

– Upper respiratory tract (nasal

passages and throat) has an
abundance of microorganisms;
many are harmless, some are
opportunistic pathogens

– Carriers harbor virulent pathogens

in their nasal passages or throats,
but do not have the diseases
usually caused by these pathogens

• Examples: people harboring the

bacteria that cause diphtheria,
pneumonia, meningitis, and
whooping cough

– Lower respiratory tract is usually

free of microbes
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Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the Oral Cavity

(Mouth)
– A shelter for numerous
anaerobic and aerobic
bacteria; remaining food
particles provide a rich
nutrient medium for
bacteria
– Careless dental hygiene
may cause:
pneumonia
• Dental caries (tooth
decay)
• Gingivitis (gum disease)
• Periodontitis
– The most common
organisms within the
indigenous microflora of
the mouth are various Peptostreptococcus
species of alpha-hemolytic
streptococci

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Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
– The colon (large intestine)
contains the largest
number and variety of
microorganisms of any
colonized area of the
body; an estimated 500-
600 different species -
primarily bacteria.
– Colon is anaerobic;
bacteria in colon are
mostly obligate-,
aerotolerant-, and
facultative anaerobes.
– Many of the microflora of
the colon are opportunists.

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Indigenous Microflora of Humans,
cont.

• Microflora of the Genitourinary (GU)

Tract

– The GU tract consists of the

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra, and parts of the
female/male reproductive systems

– Kidney, ureters and urinary

bladder are usually sterile; the
distal urethra and its external
opening harbor many microbes
including bacteria, yeasts and
viruses

– Most frequent causes of urethral

infections include Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis
trachomatis, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, and mycoplasmas

– The male and female reproductive

systems are usually sterile, with
the exception of the vagina

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

 Beneficial and Harmful Roles of
Indigenous Microflora

• Humans derive many benefits

from their indigenous microflora;
examples - vitamins K and B12.
• Microbial Antagonism
– Means “microbes versus
microbes”
– Many members of our
indigenous microflora are
beneficial in that they
prevent other microbes from
becoming established
– Other examples of microbial
antagonism involve:
• Production of antibiotics
and bacteriocins
E. coli
(antibacterial proteins);
an example is colicin,
produced by E. coli

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Beneficial and Harmful Roles of
Indigenous Microflora, cont.
• Opportunistic Pathogens and
Biotherapeutic Agents

– Opportunistic pathogens are

those microorganisms that
“hang around,” waiting for the
opportunity to cause infection

• Examples: E. coli, other

members of the family
Enterobacteriaceae, S.
aureus, and Enterococcus
spp.

– The delicate balance of the

indigenous microflora can be
upset by antibiotics, other
types of chemotherapy, and
changes in pH

– Bacteria and yeasts used to

stabilize the microbial balance
are called biotherapeutic
agents or probiotics

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 Microbial Communities
• It is rare to find an ecologic niche
in which only one type of
microorganism is causing a
particular effect
• Microorganisms are often
organized into biofilms – complex
communities of assorted
organisms. Biofilms are
everywhere; example – dental
plaque.
• Biofilms consist of a variety of
different species of bacteria plus a
gooey polysaccharide that the
bacteria secrete; the bacteria Iodine staining of biofilm plaque
grow in tiny clusters called (upper right)
microcolonies, separated by water
channels
• Biofilms have medical significance;
they form on urinary catheters
and medical equipment and can
cause diseases like endocarditis
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 Microbial Communities, cont.

• Microbes commonly associated with

biofilms on medical devices include
the yeast, Candida albicans, and
bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus,
Enterococcus spp., Klebsiella
pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.

• Biofilms are very resistant to

antibiotics and disinfectants

– Antibiotics that are effective

against pure cultures of
organisms have been found to
be ineffective against those
same organisms within an Biofilm on contact lenses
actual biofilm
http://www.clspectrum.com/pr
• Bacteria in biofilms produce different
types of proteins that may not be intarticle.aspx?article=102915
produced by the bacteria in pure
culture.
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Synergistic Infections
• When 2 or more organisms
“team up” to produce a
disease that neither could
cause by itself
• The diseases are called
synergistic infections,
polymicrobial infections, or
mixed infections
– Examples:
• Acute necrotizing
ulcerative gingivitis
(ANUG, trench mouth,
or Vincent’s disease).
• Bacterial vaginosis
(BV)

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Agricultural Microbiology
• There are many uses for
microorganisms in agriculture
• Role of Microbes in Elemental
Cycles
– Microorganisms play an
important role in the
cycling of nutrients and
elements like nitrogen,
carbon, oxygen, sulfur,
and phosphorus.
• N2 is converted by
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria and
cyanobacteria into
ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium ion (NH4).

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Root nodules

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Agricultural Microbiology, cont.

• Other Soil
Microorganisms
– There are a
multitude of other
microorganisms in
soil – bacteria,
fungi, algae,
protozoa, viruses,
and viroids; many
are decomposers.
– A variety of
human pathogens
live in soil
including
Clostridium spp.
(such as C. tetani
and C. botulinum)
and the spores of
Bacillus anthracis.
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 Biotechnology

• Defined as “any technological

application that uses biological
systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or
modify products or processes for
specific use”
• Microbes are used in a variety of
industries, including the production
of certain foods and beverages, food
additives, vaccines, and antibiotics.
• Microbes are used in the production
of foods like bread, cheeses, olives,
pickles, vinegar and yogurt, as well
as in the production of alcoholic
beverages like beer and wine.
• Many antibiotics and drugs are
produced in pharmaceutical
companies by fungi and bacteria
(penicillin for example).

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