Elasticity

• All real “rigid” bodies are to some extent elastic,

• which means that we can change their dimensions slightly by
• pulling, pushing, twisting, or compressing.

• Three Ways shows three ways in which a solid might change its
dimensions when forces act on it

• What the three deformation types have in common is that a stress, or

deforming force per unit area, produces a strain, or unit deformation

1
2
• The stresses and the strains stress and strain are proportional to each
other.
• The constant of proportionality is called a modulus of elasticity, so
that

3
 Tension and Compression
• For simple tension or compression, the stress on the object is defined
as F/A, where F is the magnitude of the force applied perpendicularly
to an area A on the object

• The modulus for tensile and compressive stresses is called the Young’s
modulus and is represented in engineering practice by the symbol E

4
Shearing
• In the case of shearing, the stress is also a force per unit area, but the
force vector lies in the plane of the area rather than perpendicular to
it

5
Hydraulic Stress
•  the stress is the fluid pressure p on the object
• strain is V/V, where V is the original volume of the specimen and V is
the absolute value of the change in volume

6
7
8
9
10
Waves

11
Sound Waves
• mechanical waves are waves that require a material medium to exist
• There are two types of mechanical waves:
• Transverse waves involve oscillations perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave travels;
• longitudinal waves involve oscillations parallel to the direction of wave travel.

• a sound wave is defined roughly as any longitudinal wave

12
13
• Point S represents a tiny sound source, called a point source, that
emits sound waves in all directions.

• The wavefronts and rays indicate the direction of travel and the
spread of the sound waves.
• Wavefronts are surfaces over which the oscillations due to the sound
wave have the same value; such surfaces are represented by whole or
partial circles in a two-dimensional drawing for a point source.
• Rays are directed lines perpendicular to the wavefronts that indicate
the direction of travel of the wavefronts

14
The Speed of Sound
• The speed of any mechanical wave, transverse or longitudinal,
depends on both an inertial property of the medium (to store kinetic
energy) and an elastic property of the medium (to store potential
energy).

15
16
17
 TRAVELING SOUND WAVES
• Here we examine the displacements and pressure variations associated
with a sinusoidal sound wave traveling through air.

18
19
20
21
22
23
INTENSITY AND SOUND LEVEL
• If you have ever tried to sleep while someone played loud music
nearby, you are well aware that there is more to sound than
frequency, wavelength, and speed. There is also intensity.

• The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average rate per

unit area at which energy is transferred by the wave through or onto
the surface

24
25
Variation of Intensity with Distance
• How intensity varies with distance from a real sound source is often
complex.
• Some real sources (like loudspeakers) may transmit sound only in
particular directions, and the environment usually produces echoes
(reflected sound waves) that overlap the direct sound waves

26
The Decibel Scale

27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
THE DOPPLER EFFECT

35
• These motion-related frequency changes are examples of the Doppler
effect.

• The Doppler effect holds not only for sound waves but also for
electromagnetic waves, including microwaves, radio waves, and visible
light

36
37
38
39
40
SUPERSONIC SPEEDS, SHOCK WAVES

41
42
43
 SOUND WAVES
• Sound is mechanical energy that is transmitted by pressure waves
through a medium
• Periodic changes in the pressure of the medium (air or water or iron)
are created by forces acting on the molecules, causing them to
oscillate about their normal, unperturbed positions

• Since the motion of the molecules (particles) is repetitive, the term

cycle is used to describe any sequence of changes in molecular
motion (particle displacement, density of molecules, pressure, and
particle velocity) that recurs at regular intervals.

44
• The frequency of a wave is:
• The number of vibrations that a molecule makes per second or the number
of times the cycle is repeated each second

• higher frequency means that the cyclic motion is executed at a faster

rate and more cycles are completed in the 1-second interval than at
lower frequency

• Sound waves are those pressure changes that the human ear can
detect.
• They oscillate at frequencies of 20 to 20,000 cycles/second (1/s), also
referred to as hertz (Hz).

45
 Propagation
• The periodic changes in pressure when vibrating molecules interact with
neighboring molecules are conveyed from one location to another.
• The term propagation describes this transmittal to distant regions remote
from the sound source.

• Sound waves are mechanical in nature

• Mechanical pressure waves require, however, an elastic deformable
medium for propagation, which can be gas, liquid, or solid.

46
• A solid is deformable, because increased pressure applied to it causes
a change in its shape.

• Elasticity is demonstrated by a return to the original shape when the

pressure is lowered to its initial value.
• Sound transmission cannot occur in a vacuum, because no molecules
are available to transfer the mechanical vibrations

• Ultrasound is defined as mechanical waves with higher frequency

than humans can hear: mechanical waves with frequencies of greater
than 20,000 Hz, or 20 kHz

47
• Infrasound refers to mechanical waves with frequencies lower than
humans can hear: less than 20 Hz

• Sound, ultrasound, and infrasound have similar properties, and thus

these terms are often used interchangeably in the description of
physical interactions.

48
 Wave equation.
• A steel ball attached to a metal spring, when pulled a small amount
and released, moves back and forth, compressing and expanding the
spring, displaying simple harmonic motion

49
• Its movement can be represented as a sinusoidal wave

50
• The location as a function of time can therefore be described
using the wave equation

• A is the amplitude (distance from the rest position) at time t

• Ao the peak amplitude
• f the frequency
• The peak amplitude is the maximum distance from the rest position.

51
 Compression and rarefaction.
• Sound waves are pressure or mechanical waves that result in movement of
the particles of a medium across or through their mean positions

• The individual movement of each particle is described mathematically by the

wave equation and can be illustrated by looking at the movement of an
audio speaker

• An electronic signal causes the mechanical movement of the speaker

diaphragm.
• The speaker membrane mechanically vibrates or oscillates at the frequency
of the sound being produced, and the sound is radiated throughout the room

52
53
54
55
56
• The motion of the speaker can be visualized as a piston.
• When the speaker front moves forward, the air molecules immediately in
front are pushed together, producing a region of increased air density
characterized by a small zone of increased pressure

• The term compression describes the formation of the high-pressure

region

• When the speaker front is pulled back, a zone of decreased molecular

density results. The term rarefaction describes the creation of this low-
pressure region

57
• The speaker alternately compresses the air on a forward thrust and
rarefies the air on a backward thrust
• The regions of compression and rarefaction are passed through the
medium by molecular interactions
• The originally affected molecules collide with adjacent molecules to
propagate the action of the speaker

• Thus the transmission of mechanical energy through the medium

creates regions of varying particle density or pressure
• Compression zones alternate with rarefaction zones. Between the
adjacent compression zones particle density decreases to a minimum
in the rarefaction zone and then increases back toward a maximum.

58
• If the action of sound propagation is frozen in time, a plot of the
density of particles as a function of distance exhibits a wave pattern

59
• At a later instant the wave pattern of density variation is maintained
but the compression and rarefaction zones have shifted to new
locations

60
• Molecular density is not constant at a particular position but
fluctuates with a certain time dependence imposed by the frequency
of the sound wave

• The molecules vibrate back and forth through their mean positions (a
distance of only several microns) as the wave passes through the
medium.
• A micron is equal to 10−6 meter. The motion of the molecules at a
particular location is sinusoidal at the frequency of the sound wave

61
62
• Molecules do not travel from one end of the medium to the other;
there is no flow of particles.
• Rather, the effect is transmitted over long distances because of
neighbor-to-neighbor interactions.
• This molecular motion is necessary for sound transmission, which
explains why sound cannot be transmitted through a vacuum.

63
• Sound transmission is usually portrayed by showing the compression
zones.
• A compression zone is often considered the leading portion of the
sound wave and hence is called the wavefront.
• Wavefronts are helpful in illustrating the direction sound travels
(perpendicular to the compression zone) and the region over which
sound transmission takes place (the ultrasonic field).

64
 Types of Sound Waves
• Waves are divided into two basic types:
• longitudinal and transverse

• Longitudinal waves are those in which particle motion is along the

direction of the wave energy propagation; that is, the molecules vibrate
back and forth in the same direction as the wave is traveling

65
66
• Sound waves in liquids and tissue are longitudinal

• Transverse waves are those in which the motion of the particles is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave energy.
• The wave motion resulting from a stone thrown into a pool of water
is an example of a transverse wave

• The water molecules vibrate up and down, similar to a cork floating

on the water, as the wave moves away from the point of origin across
the surface of the water

67
68
• Bone is the only biologic tissue that can cause the production of
transverse waves, which are sometimes referred to as shear waves or
stress waves

69
 Properties of Sound Waves
• Waves have certain physical characteristics that are used to describe
them

70
 Wavelength
• Wavelength is the extent of one complete wave cycle

71
• A cycle is a sequence of changes in amplitude that recur at regular
intervals.

• When particle density is plotted against distance, amplitude describes

the variation in density. Wavelength is the distance between two
successive equivalent density zones (i.e., two compression zones or
two rarefaction zones) and is expressed in units of a meter (m),
centimeter (cm), or millimeter (mm).

72
 Amplitude.
• Amplitude is the change in magnitude of a physical entity
• The term can be applied to pressure in the medium or to particle
density, particle displacement, or particle velocity in the medium

• It has other applications, such as to characterize the size of a voltage

pulse delivered to or induced within the crystal of the transducer
• When the amplitude is plotted as a function of time, the period of the
wave (τ) is defined as the time necessary for one complete cycle or
the time between two successive compression zones or rarefaction
zones

73
• Alternatively, the period is the elapsed time between compression
zones as the sound wave passes through one point in the medium.
The unit of the period is the second

74
 Frequency.
• The frequency of a wave (f) is the number of cycles (pressure
oscillations) occurring at a given point in one unit of time (usually 1
second).
• The unit of frequency is the hertz, which is equal to 1 cycle per
second

75
 ▪ Example 1-1
• Calculate the period of a wave whose frequency is 4,000,000 Hz or 4 ×
106 cycles per second

76
77
Example 1-2

78
79
 Acoustic velocity
• The speed at which a wave propagates through the medium (rate of
transfer of the mechanical vibrations) is called the acoustic velocity
(c).

• The velocity of sound is determined by the rate at which the wave

energy is transmitted through the medium, which depends on the
density and compressibility of the medium.

• Note that the acoustic velocity is not the same as the particle velocity
(u), which refers to the speed at which the particles vibrate back and
forth across their mean positions.
80
SOUND-PROPAGATION
MEDIA

81
 Properties
1. Elasticity.
• Elasticity refers to the ability of an object to return to its original shape and
volume after a force is no longer acting on it.
• When a force is applied to the object (steel bar or soft tissue), a change in
shape or volume (distortion) is induced
• The amount of this distortion depends on the strength of the force and the
elastic properties of the object

• An ultrasound wave traveling through soft tissue causes elastic

deformations by the separation and compression of neighboring molecules

82
2. Density
• Density (ρ) is the mass of a medium per unit volume
• If all other physical properties of the medium are maintained unchanged,
then an increase in density will impede the rate of sound propagation
through the medium.
• As the density increases, more mass is contained within a given volume
• For particles with increasingly larger mass, more force is required to
produce molecular motion; and once the molecules are moving, more
force is required to stop them
• Thus on the basis of density alone, we would expect sound (ultrasound)
to have a greater velocity in air (low density) than in bone (high density).
• However, this is not the case, and other factors must influence acoustic
velocity

83
• Quantitatively, the velocity of sound in a medium (c) is inversely
proportional to the square root of the density of the medium

84
2. Compressibility.
• Another physical characteristic of a medium, compressibility (K), affects
the velocity of sound through the medium
• Compressibility indicates the fractional decrease in volume when
pressure is applied to the material
• The easier a medium is to reduce in volume, the higher is its
compressibility.

• The velocity of sound through a medium is also inversely proportional to

the square root of the compressibility of the medium

85
• However, the parameter relating the elastic properties of a medium to
the velocity of sound through it is usually expressed as the reciprocal
of the compressibility, termed the bulk modulus (B).

• Thus velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the bulk

modulus

• A dense material (e.g., bone or other solid) is very difficult to reduce in

volume when pressure is applied to it.
• This low compressibility predicts the high velocity of sound in bone.
By contrast, air is easily reduced in volume, because the gas molecules
are far apart and can be easily brought closer together (compressibility
is high)
86
• The velocity of sound in air is low.
• Based on density and compressibility differences, the velocity of
sound in bone is much greater than that in air.

87
 Bulk modulus.
• The bulk modulus is often defined as the negative ratio of stress and
strain.

• Stress is the force per unit area (or pressure) applied to an object
• Strain is the fractional change in volume of the object
• The negative sign is required since a positive pressure causes a
decrease in volume
• Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that a material is resistant
to change in its volume when force is applied.

88
• As the bulk modulus increases—and the compressibility decreases—
the velocity of sound in the medium increases

89
 Influences on Acoustic Velocity
• Combining the compressibility (or bulk modulus) and density into one
equation, we can determine the acoustic velocity for a particular
medium:

90
• If the density can be increased without affecting the compressibility,
then that the speed of sound will decrease.
• Compressibility and density of a particular substance are
interdependent; a change in density is often coupled with a larger and
opposing change in compressibility.

• Because compressibility varies more rapidly, it becomes the dominant

factor in Equation 1 - 4.
• The overall effect is commonly summarized by the statement that, as
density increases, the velocity of sound through a medium increases.

91
• Although exceptions can be cited, for materials of interest to the
sonographer (air, lung, fat, soft tissue, plastic, bone) this statement is
generally true

92
93
• The compressibility of water is 13.4 times that of mercury (water is more easily
compressed). Differences in compressibility and density between the two liquids cancel,
so the velocities for water and mercury are similar

• For liquids in general, density and compressibility offset each other, and consequently different liquids
tend to transmit ultrasound at nearly the same velocity. In the transmission of sound, soft tissue behaves
similarly to liquid; the acoustic velocities for various tissue types do not vary by more than a few
percentage points

94
• In general, because their compressibility is low, more dense media
(most solids) have greater velocities than do less dense media (liquids
or gases).
• This is one of the reasons (the other will soon become evident) why,
in old western movies, cowboys would put their heads to the ground
or to a railroad track to hear stampeding buffalo or an approaching
train.
• Sound travels faster in media that are denser than air because of
reduced compressibility.

95
• The average velocity of ultrasound in tissue is 1540 m/s or 154,000
cm/s or 1.54 mm/μs.
• A slight dependence on temperature of the medium and on sound
frequency is exhibited; the velocity of ultrasound waves in water at
20° C is 1480 m/s but rises to 1570 m/s in water that is 37° C.
• For a few degrees' shift in temperature, the change in velocity
through water is small.

• Thus room temperature fluctuations are not a problem with respect

to clinical applications, because the body maintains a nearly constant
temperature

96
• The dependence of velocity or other physical parameter on frequency
is called dispersion.
• The change in velocity with frequency is small (<0.5%) over the
frequency range used in diagnostic ultrasound, which is 2 to 20
megahertz (MHz)

• The velocity of sound in different materials (e.g., blood versus soft

tissue) has varying frequency dependence, but these small differences
have little importance in clinical imaging.

97
 FREQUENCY, WAVELENGTH, AND
VELOCITY
• The velocity of sound or ultrasound remains constant for a particular
medium.
• The velocity (c) is equal to the frequency (f) times the wavelength (λ).
Stated mathematically:

• This is probably the most important equation used in diagnostic

ultrasound. Because the velocity is constant for a particular medium,
increasing the frequency causes the wavelength to decrease

98
Example 1-3

99
100
Example 1-4

101
INTERACTIONS OF
ULTRASOUND
WITH TISSUE

102
• In diagnostic radiography:
• the beam of x rays is produced outside the patient's body; the x rays are
subsequently attenuated (absorbed and scattered) as they pass through the
patient's tissues
• Ultimately, the transmitted photons are recorded on film.
• For diagnostic ultrasound:
• the recorded image is typically based on reflected rather than transmitted
energy

• The single device that generates the ultrasound wave and, subsequently,
detects the reflected energy is the transducer.

103
• An ultrasound wave is directed into the body to interact with tissues in
accordance with the characteristics of the targeted tissues.
• The results of these interactions are recorded for diagnosis in the form of
reflected ultrasound waves
• The types of interactions that occur are similar to the wave behavior
observed with light:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Scattering
4. Diffraction
5. Divergence
6. Interference
7. Absorption
104
• With the exception of interference, all these interactions reduce the
intensity of the beam, termed attenuation.
• Interference may increase or decrease the intensity.

• In practice, reflection is often treated separately from attenuation;

in other words, all interactions that decrease the intensity of the beam
except for reflection are included in the attenuation process

105
1.Reflection
• The major interaction of interest for diagnostic ultrasound is
reflection

106
• The angle of reflection of a sound beam is
equal to the angle of incidence

107
108
These angles are defined relative to a line drawn perpendicular to the
surface of the interface (normal incidence).
To obtain maximum detection of the reflected signal, we must orient the
transducer (which sends and receives) so the generated sound beam will
strike the interface perpendicularly

109
 2. Scattering
• Another important interaction between ultrasound and tissue is
scattering, or nonspecular reflection, which is responsible for providing
the internal texture of organs in the image
• The scattering occurs because the interfaces are small, less than several
wavelengths across
• Each interface acts as a new separate sound source, and sound is
reflected in all directions

110
111
• Scattering by small particles in which the linear dimensions are
smaller than the wavelength is called Rayleigh scattering.

• These nonspecular reflections have a strong frequency dependence

(f2 to f6), which may make them useful in characterizing tissue.
• Tissue characterization involves the absolute determination of tissue
type via some physical measurement obtained by noninvasive means

• When the frequency is changed, the altered scattering of the sound

beam may provide important information for differentiating tissue
types.

112
 3.Refraction
• Another interaction that occurs between ultrasound and tissue is
refraction.
• If the ultrasound beam strikes an interface between two media at an
angle of 90 degrees (normal incidence), a percentage will be reflected
back to the first medium and the rest will be transmitted into the second
medium without a change in direction.
• If the beam strikes the interface at an angle other than 90 degrees,
however, the transmitted part will be refracted or bent away from the
straight-line path

113
Snell's law
• Refraction of sound waves obeys Snell's law, which relates the angle of
transmission to the relative velocities of sound in the two media. (Note
that this relationship is not based on acoustic impedance.)

• Snell's law:

114
115
Example 1-9

116
117
118
 Total reflection
• If the velocity in the first medium is less than that in the second
medium and if the angle of incidence is beyond the so called critical
angle, the refracted beam travels along the interface and no energy
enters the second medium.

• This is called total reflection and occurs at an incident angle of greater

than 22 degrees when the interface is composed of tissue and bone

119
120
121
Misregistration
• The amount of deviation from the expected straight-line path changes
with the angle of incidence and with the velocities in the associated
media

• This does not generally present any difficulty in diagnostic ultrasound

because the velocity of ultrasound in soft tissue is relatively constant
• Although refraction is not a major problem in diagnostic ultrasound,
under certain conditions the bending of the sound beam can cause
artifacts in diagnostic images

122
• The formation of the image is predicated on the assumption that the
ultrasound beam always travels in a straight line through tissue

123
• that an object appears at the wrong location in the image because the
assignment of position is based on the projected straight line path of
the beam whereas the true location of the object is actually offset
from the assumed path.
• Misregistration of interfaces can also result from reflections caused by
ultrasonic side lobes
• In addition, refraction may account for the distortion of an object
seen on the monitor

124
125
126
127
4.Diffraction
• Diffraction causes the ultrasound beam to diverge or spread out as
the waves more farther from the sound source

128
• The rate of divergence increases as the size (diameter) of the sound
source decreases.
• Diffraction also occurs after the beam with planar wave fronts passes
through a small aperture on the order of one wavelength. Because
the wave is blocked everywhere but in the area of the aperture, the
aperture acts as a small sound source and the beam diverges rapidly

129
• The lateral resolution of the beam and the sensitivity of the
ultrasonic system are both affected by divergence

130
 5.Interference
• Sound waves demonstrate interference phenomena or the
superposition of waves (algebraic summation
• If waves with the same frequency are in phase, they undergo
constructive interference.
• Waves are in phase if crossing and inflection points are matched along
the distance or time axis

131
• Constructive interference results in an
increased amplitude

132
• If waves with the same frequency are out of phase, they undergo
destructive interference; that is, a decrease in amplitude results
because the peaks are not matched in the same position

133
134
• Completely destructive interference occurs when the waves are of the
same frequency and amplitude and are completely out of phase (i.e.,
the trough of one wave corresponds to the peak of the other).
• The result is a wave with zero amplitude; hence, the summation wave
disappears

135
136
• The effect of one wave is countered by the opposite effect of the
other wave.
• For example, when a soccer ball is approached by two opposing
players, the player who kicks it first controls the direction of travel.
• If both players kick the ball simultaneously with equal force, the
forces applied will cancel each other and the ball will not move
toward either goal

137
• shows the result when waves with differing frequencies create
interference.
• This interference is important in the design of an ultrasonic
transducer because it affects the uniformity of the beam intensity
throughout the ultrasonic field

138
139
• Focusing of the ultrasound beam in real time imaging is based on the
principle of wave interference (Chapter 4).
• Waves of similar frequency, when combined, produce a "beat" that is
used in Doppler ultrasound

140
6.Absorption
• Absorption is the only process whereby sound energy is dissipated in
a medium.
• All other modes of interactions (reflection, refraction, scattering, and
divergence) decrease the ultrasonic beam intensity by redirecting the
energy of the beam
• Absorption is the process whereby ultrasonic energy is transformed
into other energy forms, primarily heat.
• It is responsible for the medical applications of therapeutic ultrasound
(physiotherapy).

141
142
Factors influencing absorption.
• The absorption of an ultrasonic beam is related to:
• beam's frequency
• viscosity
• relaxation time of the medium

143
• The relaxation time:
• describes the rate at which molecules return to their original
positions after being displaced by a force

• If a substance has a short relaxation time, the molecules

return to their original positions before the next wave
compression arrives

• If it has a long relaxation time, however, the molecules may be moving

back toward their original positions as the wave crest (compression)
strikes them More energy is required to stop and then reverse the
direction of the molecules, and this produces more heat (absorption)
144
• Viscosity:
• The ability of molecules to move past one another determines the viscosity
of a medium; high viscosity provides great resistance to molecular flow.
• For instance, a low viscosity fluid (water) flows more freely than a viscous
one (maple syrup).
• The frictional forces must be overcome by vibrating molecules, and thus
more heat is produced in the maple syrup

145
146
• Frequency:
• The frequency also affects absorption in relation to both the viscosity
and the relaxation time

• If the frequency is increased, the molecules must move more often,

thereby generating more heat from the drag caused by friction
(viscosity).
• Also, as the frequency is increased, less time is available for the
molecules to recover during the relaxation process

147
• Molecules remain in motion, and more energy is necessary to stop
and redirect them, again producing more Absorption
• The rate of absorption is directly related to the frequency.
• If the frequency doubles, the rate of absorption (as specified by the
absorption coefficient, a) also doubles
• Consider the mechanical action of rubbing one's hands together. The
movement produces heat. If the hands are rubbed together more
rapidly (higher frequency), increased warming occurs
• If lotion is placed between the palms so the resistance is decreased
(lower viscosity), less heat will be generated.

148
Attenuation
• Attenuation includes the effects of both scattering and absorption in the
characterization of amplitude reduction as the ultrasound wave
propagates through a medium.

• Attenuation is also described by an exponential function dependent on

the distance traveled, composition of the medium, and the frequency
• As frequency is increased, the reduction of the ultrasound intensity with
distance becomes more pronounced
• This has a practical consequence in medical imaging

149
• The ultrasound beam and returning echoes used to form the image
must travel through tissue.
• The depth of penetration becomes less as frequency is increased— the
ability to observe deep-lying structures is forfeited

150
151
152
153
• At a particular location within a continuous single-frequency
ultrasonic field, the variations of pressure with time demonstrate an
oscillatory behavior, the greatest deviations occurring during
maximum pressure (po).
• The maximum particle velocity (uo) and the maximum particle
displacement (S0) are related to the maximum pressure.
• As the maximum pressure is reduced, a corresponding decrease in
particle velocity and particle displacement occurs

154
 INTENSITY
• The intensity of an ultrasonic beam is the physical parameter that
describes the amount of energy flowing through a cross-sectional area
per second
• Simply, it is the rate at which the energy is transmitted by the wave
over a small area.

• When characterizing audible acoustics, we use the term intensity to

describe the loudness of sound.
• For ultrasound, increasing intensity means that the distribution of
particles within the compression regions becomes more dense,
acoustic pressure is higher, length of particle oscillation increases, and
maximum particle velocity is greater
155
• The intensity of an ultrasound beam decreases as the beam propagates
through tissue.
• The transmitted intensity and the rate of intensity loss influence the ability
of a scanner to observe weakly reflecting structures.
• Frequency, wavelength, and acoustic velocity of an are not affected by a
change in intensity if beam propagation is linear
• For high-intensity applications such as tissue harmonic imaging,
propagation is nonlinear and a change in frequency does occur

• The study of potential biologic effects is linked to intensity.

• Since the particle velocity and length of displacement are dictated by
intensity, a high-intensity ultrasound wave is more disruptive than a low-
intensity ultrasound wave is to living systems.
156
• Traditionally, acoustic intensity is expressed in mixed units of watts
per centimeter squared or milliwatts per centimeter squared

157
Intensity Descriptors
• The intensity of an ultrasound beam is proportional to the square of
the pressure amplitude, particle-displacement amplitude, or particle-
velocity amplitude
• For example, the equation for instantaneous intensity (i) is given by:

158
• Acoustic pressure is expressed in pascals (Pa) in the MKS system.
Pressure is the force exerted on a small area; thus a pascal is
equivalent to a newton per meter squared (Nt/m2).

159
• Often the time-averaged intensity (I) is of interest. At any point
through which an ultrasound beam passes, the pressure oscillates
between high and low values
• The greatest deviation from average pressure during a cycle is the
maximum-pressure or peak-pressure amplitude (po).
• Since the pressure is fluctuating as a function of time, the
instantaneous intensity is also oscillating between high and low
values.
• By averaging the instantaneous intensity over one cycle it is possible
to find the time-averaged intensity:

160
Power
• The power (W) is a measure of the total energy transmitted per unit
time summed over the entire cross-sectional area of the beam:

• The emitted power from the transducer assembly is not constant but
fluctuates over the wave cycle.
• Ultrasonic power, averaged over a time period, is referred to as the
temporal average power. The unit of power is the watt

161
 Decibel
• Absolute values of the power and intensity of an ultrasonic beam are
difficult to measure.
• This is particularly true of pulsed diagnostic beams, for which both
temporal and spatial properties must be considered
• Although no standard reference intensity for ultrasound has been
established, a useful method for determining the reduced intensity of
a beam is to make relative measurements that compare the value at
one point with a reference intensity at another point.

162
• Relative measurements are usually made and given in decibels (dB).
The intensity variation or level expressed in decibels is

163
• One advantage of decibels is that they enable a wide range of
intensity and power levels to be expressed in a compact form
• They can also be used to describe relative measurements for
amplitude, noise level, percentage reflection, and many other
quantities
• Another advantage of the decibel notation is that decibel changes
along the beam path are additive.

164
165
• The intensity of the detected echo is often compared with the
intensity of the transmitted ultrasound wave.
• If the relative intensity of the returning echo is 60 dB less than that of
the transmitted wave,demonstrates that the echo will be a small
fraction (1/1,000,000) of the transmitted intensity

166
 Half-Value Layer
• A half-value layer (HVL) or half-value thickness of material is the
thickness that will reduce the intensity to half its original value.
• Note that a reduction in intensity by a factor of 2 results in 3 dB loss

• A decrease in intensity by 3 dB indicates that one HVL of material

must have been present.

167
 Decibels and HVLs
• A 9 dB reduction in intensity is expected from a thickness of material
composed of 3 HVLs—that is, 9 dB divided by 3 dB/HVL equals 3 HVLs

168
• For example, muscle exhibits a linear change in HVL with frequency,
but this is not the case for water
• If the number of HVLs (n) present in an ultrasound beam is known,
the reduction of intensity can be calculated from the following
equation:

169
• The attenuation of an ultrasound beam is a measure of the decrease
of power or intensity as the beam traverses a medium.
• All the interactions of ultrasound with tissue (reflection, refraction,
scattering, divergence, and absorption) cause a decrease in beam
intensity and contribute to the overall attenuation of the beam.
• Only absorption results in energy transfer to the tissue; all other
interactions with tissue cause a redirection of ultrasonic energy.

170
Penetration
• High-frequency sound waves are attenuated more rapidly than low-
frequency sound waves.
• Thus the ability to penetrate tissue is reduced at higher frequencies.
• In addition, a reflector positioned at progressively greater depths
generates progressively lower-intensity returning echoes.
• A method whereby the strength of the received signal is increased by
amplification as a function of depth, called time gain compensation
(TGC)

171
172
• The attenuation rate at frequencies above 1 MHz is estimated by
assuming that the attenuation rate is directly proportional to the
frequency

173
 Attenuation in Tissue
• Absorption and scattering related to attenuation were introduced in
the preceding chapter.
• A mathematical description of absorption and attenuation with
numerous numerical examples is presented in this chapter.

• Calculations of attenuation and reflection losses illustrate the

relatively low intensity of the received echo compared with the
transmitted ultrasound beam.

174
 ABSORPTION
• At a particular location within a continuous single-frequency ultrasonic field
(z), the variations of instantaneous pressure (p) with time demonstrate
oscillatory behavior, in which the maximum deviation is designated as the
peak amplitude pressure (po).

• The initial peak amplitude of acoustic pressure at the surface (pmax)

decreases as the ultrasound wave moves through a homogeneous medium

• The absorption of the ultrasonic beam (reduction in acoustic pressure due to

energy transfer to the medium) follows an exponential function:

175
176
• The absorption coefficient depends on the medium and frequency of the ultrasound wave.
As the ultrasound wave penetrates tissue, the peak amplitude pressure is decreased,
causing smaller pressure variations at depth

177
• These pressure oscillations are very rapid—equal to the frequency of
the ultrasound wave

178
 ATTENUATION
• Attenuation includes the effects of both scattering and absorption in
the loss of pressure amplitude as the ultrasound wave propagates
through a medium

• Attenuation is also described by an exponential function.

• Thus the form of Equation 2 - 1 remains unchanged but the
absorption coefficient is replaced by the attenuation coefficient (a):

179
180
• The coefficients quantitate the respective fractional losses in peak
amplitude pressure per unit length from absorption (α), scattering
(as), and both processes together (a).

• The special unit for these coefficients is the neper (Np) per
centimeter.

181
• The effect of frequency must be included in any specification of
attenuation coefficient.
• In a first approximation the attenuation coefficient increases linearly
with frequency.
• For example, the coefficient for fat at 3.5 MHz is estimated by
multiplying the value in Table 2 - 1 (0.069 Np/cm/MHz) by 3.5 MHz to
obtain 0.24 Np/cm.

182
183
 INTENSITY
• Intensity describes the amount of energy flowing through a cross-
sectional area per unit of time.
• The units of intensity are joules/cm2/s or watts/cm2. Energy in this
case is kinetic energy of particles as they are accelerated and
decelerated by the pressure wave.
• The intensity of the beam also decreases exponentially with distance
from the sound source, which is given by:

184
• where I is the intensity at the point of interest, Imax the initial transmitted
intensity, z the distance traversed by the beam, and μ the intensity
attenuation coefficient

• The intensity of an ultrasound beam is proportional to the square of the

pressure amplitude.
• Thus the intensity attenuation coefficient is related to the amplitude
attenuation coefficient by

185
 DECIBEL
• Relative measurements that compare the value at one point with a reference
intensity at another point are expressed in decibels (dB). The intensity
change or level expressed in decibels is :

186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
Amplitude Equation for Decibels

194
Decibels and HVLs

195
196
197
198
 CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION LOSS
• The intensity loss in decibels caused by attenuation as the ultrasound
beam passes through a medium is calculated by the equation

199
200
• negative sign is not included in Equation 2 - 14, because attenuation always
causes decreased intensity as the ultrasound beam penetrates a medium.
The descriptor “loss” and the negative sign would be redundant

• However, if the result is used in Equation 2 - 8 to calculate an absolute

intensity expressed in W/cm2, intensity loss by attenuation must include the
negative sign. The intensity attenuation coefficient is tissue specific and
accounts for differences in the attenuation rate for various tissue types. Rapid
attenuation is indicated by high values of the intensity attenuation coefficient

201
• The decreased intensity expressed in decibels is directly proportional
to both the depth of penetration and the frequency of the ultrasound
beam

202
203
204
 DETERMINATION OF ECHO INTENSITY
• Soft Tissue–Bone Interface
• the ultrasound beam striking an interface composed of soft tissue and
bone

205
206
• An echo is created at the interface that returns toward the transducer.
The thickness of the soft tissue is 6 cm, and that of the bone 0.5 cm

• In Fig . 2 - 4 the sound wave must traverse 6 cm of tissue before

striking the soft tissue–bone interface. In Fig . 2 - 5 the order of the
media is reversed: The sound wave must traverse 0.5 cm of bone
before striking the interface.

• These figures will be used to illustrate the change in intensity of a

sound beam after undergoing various interactions, specifically
attenuation and reflection.

207
• From Example 2 - 4, the intensity loss in decibels for a 2.5 MHz
ultrasound beam after traversing 6 cm of soft tissue can be seen to be
12 dB. The intensity loss for a 2.5 MHz ultrasound beam after
traversing 0.5 cm of bone is calculated in an identical manner and
found to be 25 dB.
• A small thickness of bone is very effective at reducing the intensity of
the ultrasound beam, as indicated by the high intensity attenuation
coefficient.
• The large reduction attributed to attenuation in bone is the major
reason why bone is generally avoided during an ultrasound
examination.
• Additionally, there is a large amount of reflection at any soft tissue–
bone interface
208
• In ultrasound imaging the transducer sends out a pulsed wave and
subsequently detects the returning echo.
• Intensity loss occurs by attenuation of the transmitted wave going out
to the interface and also by attenuation of the reflected wave coming
back toward the transducer from the interface.
• The rate of attenuation depends on tissue type and wave frequency.
The intensity of the detected echo from an interface is diminished by
increasing the distance of travel.

209
210
 Attenuation and Reflection Losses
• We will now consider the combined effect of attenuation and
reflection on the intensity of a detected echo.
• Attenuation refers to all processes (except reflection) that act to
reduce ultrasound intensity.
• Losses from attenuation and reflection must be expressed in the same
units, usually decibels.
• To convert percentage reflection into decibels, we modify Equation 2
- 8 by replacing Imax with 100 and I with the percentage reflection
and inverting the fraction within the logarithmic function (to
eliminate the negative sign):

211
The negative sign is not included, because the descriptor “loss” indicates that reflection always causes a
reduction of intensity. Furthermore, losses from attenuation and reflection expressed in decibels are additive
and can be easily combined

212
213
214
215
Example 2-7

216
217
 Calculation of Intensity
• Once the total attenuation from all sources (i.e., absorption,
reflection, refraction, and scattering) in decibels is found, the intensity
ratio can be calculated. For a loss of 30 dB, Equation 2 - 8
demonstrates that the original intensity is reduced by a factor of 1000

218
Example 2-8

219
Example 2-9

220
221
222
223
Exercises

224
225