The diode is a 2-terminal device.

A diode ideally conducts in only one direction .

Materials commonly used in the development of
semiconductor devices:
One end of a silicon or germanium crystal can be
doped as a p-type material and the other end as an
n-type material.
At the p-n junction, the excess conduction-band electrons on
the n-type side are attracted to the valence-band holes on
the p-type side.
The electrons in the n-type material
migrate across the junction to the
p-type material (electron flow).

Electron migration results in a

The result is the formation of a
negative charge on the p-type
depletion region around the
side of the junction and a positive
junction.
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
 Conduction Region Non-Conduction Region

The voltage across the diode is All of the voltage is across the
0 V. The current is infinite diode. The current is 0 A.
The forward resistance is The reverse resistance is
defined as RF = VF / IF defined as RR = VR / IR
The diode acts like a short. The diode acts like open.
A diode has three operating conditions:
 No Bias Applied (V=0V)

No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V

There is no diode current: ID = 0 A

Only a modest depletion region exists

 Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied
across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the
p- and n-type materials.
 Reverse Bias
The reverse voltage causes
the depletion region to
widen.
The electrons in the n-type
material are attracted
The holes in the p-type
toward the positive terminal
material are attracted toward
of the voltage source.
the negative terminal of the
voltage source.
Forward Bias
External voltage is applied
across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p-
and n-type materials.
 Forward Bias
The forward voltage causes
the depletion region to
narrow.

The electrons and holes

are pushed toward the
p-n junction. The electrons and holes
have sufficient energy to
cross the p-n junction.
IS is the reverse saturation current

VD is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode

n is an ideality factor, which is a function of the operating
conditions and physical construction; it has a range between 1
and 2 depending on a wide variety of
factors ( n = 1 will be assumed unless otherwise noted)
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K
TK is the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + the
temperature in °C
q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6x10 -19 C
At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for
components in an enclosed operating system), determine the
thermal voltage VT .
At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for
components in an enclosed operating system), determine the
thermal voltage VT .
Note the regions
for no bias, reverse
bias, and forward
bias conditions.
 The Zener region is in the diode’s
reverse-bias region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage is
so large the diode breaks down and the
reverse current increases dramatically.
The maximum reverse voltage that won’t
take a diode into the zener region is
called the peak inverse voltage or peak
reverse voltage.
The voltage that causes a diode to enter
the zener region of operation is called the
zener voltage (VZ).
The point at which the diode changes from no-bias
condition to forward-bias condition occurs when the
electrons and holes are given sufficient energy to cross
the p-n junction. This energy comes from the external
voltage applied across the diode.

Forward Bias Voltage is also known as Knee Voltage

As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.

It reduces the required forward bias voltage for forward-

bias conduction.
It increases the amount of reverse current in the reverse-
bias condition.
It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche voltage.
The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a
mechanical switch in that it can control whether current will
flow between its two terminals. However, the semiconductor
diode is different from a mechanical switch in the sense
that when the switch is closed it will only permit current to
flow in one direction.
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.

There are three types of resistance:

The application of a dc voltage
to a circuit containing a
semiconductor diode will result
in an operating point on the
characteristic curve that will
not change with time.

For a specific applied DC voltage

(VD) the diode has a specific
current (ID) and a specific
resistance (R ).
Determine the dc resistance levels
for the diode at the given figure.

a. ID = 2mA (low level)

b. ID = 20 mA (high level)
c. VD = -10 V (reverse-biased)
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve
through the Q -point as shown in the figure
will define a particular change in voltage
and current that can be used to determine
the ac or dynamic resistance for this region
of the diode characteristics.
The voltage across the diode is fairly
constant (26 mV for 25C).
The steeper the slope, the lower is the value of ΔVd for the
same change in ΔId and the lower is the resistance. The ac
resistance in the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is
therefore quite small, whereas the ac resistance is much
higher at low current levels.
For the characteristics given,
a. Determine the ac resistance
at ID = 2 mA.
b. Determine the ac resistance
at ID = 25 mA.
1. For ID = 2mA, the tangent line at ID = 2mA was drawn as
shown in the figure and a swing of 2mA above and below the
specified diode current was chosen. At ID = 4mA,
VD = 0.76V, and at ID = 0mA, VD = 0.65V. The resulting
changes in current and voltage are, respectively,

ΔId = 4 mA - 0 mA = 4 mA
ΔVd = 0.76 V - 0.65 V = 0.11 V
2. For ID = 25mA, the tangent line at ID = 25mA was drawn
as shown in the figure and a swing of 5mA above and below
the specified diode current was chosen. At I D = 30mA,
VD = 0.8V, and at ID = 20mA, VD = 0.78V. The resulting
changes in current and voltage are, respectively,

ΔId = 30 mA - 20 mA = 10 mA
ΔVd = 0.8 V - 0.78 V = 0.02 V
The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope
of the tangent line drawn at that point.

The resistance of the semiconductor material itself (called

body resistance) and the resistance introduced by the
connection between the semiconductor material and the
external metallic conductor (called contact resistance).
 AC resistance can be
calculated using the current
and voltage values for two
points on the diode
characteristic curve.
 An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements
properly chosen to best represent the actual terminal
characteristics of a device or system in a particular
operating region.
When reverse biased, the depletion layer is very large. The
diode’s strong positive and negative polarities create
transition capacitance (CT). The amount of capacitance
depends on the reverse voltage applied.

When forward biased, storage capacitance or diffusion

capacitance (CD) exists as the diode voltage increases.

Diffusion Capacitance is the capacitance due to transport

of charge carriers between two terminals of a device.
The transition capacitance is the predominant capacitive
effect in the reverse-bias region whereas the diffusion
capacitance is the predominant capacitive effect in the
forward-bias region.
Reverse recovery time is
the time required for a
diode to stop conducting
when switched from forward
bias to reverse bias.
Diode data sheets contain standard information, making cross-matching of
diodes for replacement or design easier.

1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature

2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range
Diodes are commonly tested using one of these types of
equipment:
Many digital multimeters have a diode checking function.
The diode should be tested out of circuit.

A normal diode exhibits its forward voltage:

An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test
a diode. The diode should be tested out of circuit.
 A curve tracer displays
the characteristic curve
of a diode in the test
circuit. This curve can be
compared to the
specifications of the
diode from a data sheet.
There are several types of diodes besides the standard
p-n junction diode. Three of the more common are:
 A Zener diode is one that is
designed to safely operate in its
zener region; i.e., biased at the
Zener voltage (VZ).
The Zener potential of a Zener diode is very sensitive to
the temperature of operation.
The Zener potential of a Zener diode is very sensitive to
the temperature of operation.
If the temperature of a 10-V Zener diode is increased to
100°C (the boiling point of water). What is the resulting
Zener potential?
An LED emits light when it is forward biased, which can
be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
 In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the
energy converted during recombination at the junction is
dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and
the emitted light is insignificant.

Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared

(invisible) zone during the recombination process at the
p–n junction.
Infrared LEDs have numerous applications where visible
light is not a desirable effect:
security systems, industrial processing,
optical coupling, safety controls such as on garage door
openers, and in home entertainment
centers
Infrared LEDs have numerous applications where visible
light is not a desirable effect:
security systems, industrial processing, optical coupling,
safety controls such as on garage door openers, and in
home entertainment centers
Electroluminescence (EL) is an optical phenomenon and
electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in
response to the passage of an electric current or to a
strong electric field.
Find the range of wavelength for the frequency range of
visible light (400 THz–750 THz)
Multiple diodes can be packaged
together in an integrated circuit
(IC).