Course Outline (Manufacturing Process II)

No. Topics

1
Theory of Metal Cutting: Basic principles of cutting tools, mechanics of chip formation, cutting tool
material and fluids, single point cutting tool geometry and tool life and wear.

2
Material Removal Processes & Machines: Material removing machines. Lathe, milling, shapers and
planers, drilling machines and their operations. Tool and work holding devices. Safety measures.

3
Abrasive Machining & Finishing Operations: Abrasives, grinding wheels, grinding processes, grinding
fluids, types of grinders, finishing operations, honing, lapping, and coated abrasive.

4
Non-conventional Machining Processes: Electro chemical machining, chemical milling, electrical
discharge machining.

5
Powder Metallurgy: Production of metal powders, compaction and pressing, sintering, finishing
operations, design considerations.

6
Surface Treatment & Coating: Mechanical surface treatment and coating, electroplating, electro-
forming, thermal spraying, anodizing, hot dipping, surfaces cleaning.

7 Control of Machine Tools & CIM: Automation, NC, adaptive control, computer aided design, computer
aided manufacturing, computer numerically controlled machines, artificial intelligence, flexible
manufacturing system, JIT concept, computer integrated manufacturing systems, group technology,
cellular manufacturing, factory of the future.
Manufacturing?

Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical

processes to alter the geometry, properties, and or appearance
of a given starting material to make parts or products;
manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make
products.

Manufacturing Vs Production
 ery er
in l ing o w bor
h o
ac T o P La
M
Starting material Processed part

Manufacturing Process

Scrap and waste

Manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of

greater value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly
operations.
 Solidification
processes
Manufacturing Processes
Processing Particulate
operations processing
Deformation
Processing processes
operations
Metal
Removal
Property
enhancing Heat
process Treatment
Cleaning and
Manufacturing surface treatment
processes
Surface Coating and
processing deposition
operations processes
Welding
Permanent
joining
processes Brazing and
Assembly soldering
operations
Adhesive bonding

Threaded
fasteners
Mechanical
fastening Permanent
fastening
methods
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Machining refers to cutting operations that are based on
the removal of material from an originally rough-shaped
workpiece, for example via casting or forging through
power driven machines.
Machining is the process of removing unwanted
material from a workpiece in the form of chips. If the
workpiece is a metal, the process is often called metal
cutting or metal removal.

Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp

cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave the
desired part shape.
 Importance of Machining
• Variety of work materials

• Variety of part shapes and geometric

features

• Dimensional accuracy

• Good surface finishes

 Disadvantages

 Wasteful of materials

 Time consuming
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
A complex process and difficult to analyze. Why?

• Different materials behave differently

•The process is asymmetrical and unconstrained,
bounded only by the cutting tool.
•The level of strain is very large.
•The strain rate is very high.
• The process is sensitive to variations in tool geometry,
tool material, temperature, environment (cutting
fluids) and process dynamics (chatter and vibration).
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)

There are seven basic chip formation processes:

shaping, turning, milling, drilling, sawing, broaching
and grinding.

For all metal cutting processes, it is necessary to

distinguish between speed, feed and depth of cut
Basic Machining Processes
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Cutting parameters

Speed (V) is the primary cutting motion,

which relates the velocity of the rotating
workpiece with respect to the stationary
cutting tool.

V=πDN

Units: sfpm, in/min, m/min, m/s

 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Cutting parameters

Feed (f) is the amount of material

removed per revolution or per pass of the
tool over the workpiece.
The tool feeds parallel to the rotational
axis of the workpiece.

Units: in/rev, mm/rev

 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Cutting parameters

The depth of cut (DOC), d, represents the

third dimension. In turning, it is the
distance the tool is plunged into the
surface.

DOC=(D-d)/2

Units: in, mm
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Material Removal Rate (MRR)

It is the amount of material removed by

the cutting tool in unit time.

MRR= speed x feed x DOC

MRR= (volume of cut)/(cutting time)

CT= (L+Allowance)/(fN)

Units: in3/min, mm3/min

 Supporting websites
1. http://www.menet.umn.edu/degarmo/
Chapters 21,22,23,27
2.http://www.me.gatech.edu/jonathan.colton/
me4210/mfgvideos.html
(Manufacturing process videos including
machining processes)
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Feed (in Milling)
Milling, a multiple tooth process has
two feeds: the amount of metal an
individual tooth removes, called the
feed per tooth, ft, and the rate at
which the table translates past the
rotating tool, called the table feed,
fm, feed per minute.

fm=ftnN

Where n= no. of teeth

 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Orthogonal Cutting Model
By definition, orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the
cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed.
As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear
deformation along a plane called shear plane, which is oriented at an angle
Φ with the surface of the work.
Along the shear plane where the bulk of the mechanical energy is
consumed in machining, the material is plastically deformed.
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Orthogonal Plate Model
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Orthogonal Plate Model

The workpiece is a flat plate. The workpiece is moving past the tool at
velocity V. The feed of the tool now is called uncut chip thickness t.
The DOC is the width of the plate, w or width of cut. The Cutting edge of
the tool is perpendicular to the direction of motion V.
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
2D Model

Clearance angle
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Chip formation
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Merchant’s Model

c
V
Vs

lc

V γ
 Material Removal Processes
(Machining)
Merchant’s Model
Merchant’s force circle diagram
 The Merchant Equation

Assumption: The shear strength of the work material is a constant,

unaffected by strain rate, temperature and other factors. Therefore
the equation for Φ is an approximate relation rather than an accurate
mathematical equation.
 The Merchant Equation

The shear plane angle can be increased by :

(1) Increasing the rake angle
(2) Decreasing the friction angle (coefficient of friction)

If all other factors remains constant, a higher shear plane angle results in
smaller shear plane area.
Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force
required to form the chip will decrease when the shear plane area is
reduced.
 The Merchant Equation

A greater shear plane angle results in lower cutting

energy , lower power requirements, and lower cutting
temperature.
 Types of Chips in Machining
• Chip formation affects the surface finish, cutting forces,
temperature, tool life and dimensional tolerance.

• Understanding the chip formation during the machining

process for the specific materials is useful to determine the
machining speeds, feed rates and depth of cuts for efficient
machining and increase tool life.
 Types of Chips in Machining

During the machining process, four basic types of

chips are formed:

 Discontinuous
 Continuous
 Continuous with Built-up Edge
 Serrated chip formation
 Types of Chips in Machining
Discontinuous chip formation normally occurs during the machining of
brittle work material such as glass and silicon. This type of chips also
occurs when machining using cutting tools with small rake angles, coarse
machining feeds (large depth of cut), low cutting speeds and lack of
lubricant or cutting fluid. Discontinuous chip formation leads to
continuously changing forces, resultant vibration and chattering in the
machine tools and thus results in a final workpiece with poor surface finish
and loose tolerance.
 Types of Chips in Machining
Continuous chip formation is normally considered to be the ideal
condition for efficient cutting action as it gives excellent finish and occurs
usually for ductile metals. The chip consists of a continuous "ribbon" of
metal which flows up the chip-tool zone. It normally occurs at high cutting
speed and rake angle, and a narrow shear zone. Chip breakers are used
during the machining to prevent the chips from entangling with the tool
holder.
 Types of Chips in Machining
Continuous chip with built-up edge is basically the same as continuous chips.
However, during the former chip formation, as the metal flows up the chip-tool zone,
small particles of the metal begin to adhere or weld themselves to the edge of the
cutting tool. As the particles continue to weld to the tool, it affects the cutting action
of the tool. This type of chip formation is common in machining of softer non-ferrous
metals and low carbon steels. Common problems are the built-up edges breaking off
and being embedded in the workpiece during machining, decrease in tool-life and final
poor surface finish of the workpiece.
 Types of Chips in Machining
Machining of difficult to cut materials at high speed often results in
instabilities in the cutting process due to thermo-mechanical response of
the work material. The consequence is shear localized or serrated chips.
The serrated chips are usually formed in the pattern of shear localization
and the chip deformation is concentrated in the narrow shear band while
most part of the chip segment is formed under relatively low strain.
Once the shear is localized it can not be shifted to a continuous chip
again with the increase of cutting speed