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Alternating Current

Alternating current is current that alternates direction usually many times per second. It is produced by a voltage source whose polarity alternates between positive and negative. The alternating voltage generated by a rotating loop forms a sine wave where the voltage is proportional to the sine of the angle of rotation. When an alternating voltage is applied across a resistor, it produces an alternating current that also follows a sine wave pattern.

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29 views31 pages

Alternating Current

Alternating current is current that alternates direction usually many times per second. It is produced by a voltage source whose polarity alternates between positive and negative. The alternating voltage generated by a rotating loop forms a sine wave where the voltage is proportional to the sine of the angle of rotation. When an alternating voltage is applied across a resistor, it produces an alternating current that also follows a sine wave pattern.

Uploaded by

Murtaza Magsi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Alternating Current

Alternating current

 Alternating current (ac) is the current that alternates

in direction (usually many times per second)


 Alternating current is produced by voltage source
whose polarities alternate between positive and
negative
 Alternating currents are called ac currents and
alternating voltages are called ac voltages
Alternating current
Alternating current

 Figure shows a voltage waveform


 Starting at zero, the voltage increases to a positive
maximum, decreases to zero, changes polarity,
increases to a negative maximum, then returns
again to zero
 One complete variation is referred to as a cycle
Since the waveform repeats itself at regular
intervals it is called a periodic waveform
Alternating voltage Generator

The conductor loop rotates through


the magnetic field to generate
induced ac voltage across its
terminals
At the horizontal position, the loop
does not induce a voltage because
the conductor does not cut across
the flux
At the vertical position, conductor
cuts across the flux and produce
maximum voltage
Alternating voltage Generator
The voltage waveform shown in figure is called a sine

wave

Figure: One cycle of alternating voltage generated by


rotating loop
Alternating voltage Generator
 Angular Measure and Radian Measure
 The cycle of voltage corresponds to
rotation of the loop around a circle,
so parts of the cycle are described
in angles
 The radian (rad) is an angle
equivalent to 57.3°
 A radian is the angular part of the
circle that includes an arc equal to
the radius r of the circle
 A circle’s circumference equals 2πr,
so one cycle equals 2π rad
Alternating voltage Generator
 Angular Measurement and Radian Measurement

Angular Measurement Radian Equivalent

Zero degrees Zero radians

360° 2π rad

180° ½ × 2π rad, or π rad

90° ½ × π rad, or π/2 rad

270° (180°+ 90°) π rad + π/2 rad = 3π/2 rad


The Sine Wave

The voltage waveform


shown is called a sine
wave, sinusoidal wave,
or sinusoid
The induced voltage is
proportional to the sine
of the angle of rotation
in the circular motion
producing the voltage
Figure: Waveform of ac voltage
Sine Wave
 With a sine wave, the induced voltage increases to a
maximum at 90°, when the loop is vertical, just as the
sine of the angle of rotation increases to a maximum at
90°
 The instantaneous value of a sine-wave voltage for any
angle of rotation is expressed in the formula:
v = VM sin θ
θ (theta) is the angle
sin = the abbreviation for sine
VM = the maximum voltage value
v = the instantaneous value of voltage at angle θ
Sine Wave

 Characteristics of the Sine-Wave AC Waveform:


 The cycle includes 360° or 2π rad
 The polarity reverses each half-cycle
 The maximum values are at 90° and 270°
 The zero values are at 0° and 180°
Alternating Current

 When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected


across a load resistance, the current that flows in the
circuit is also a sine wave
 The sine wave frequency of an alternating voltage is
the same as the alternating current through a series
connected load resistance
Alternating Current

Figure: A sine wave of alternating voltage applied across R produces a sine


wave of alternating current in the circuit. (a) Waveform of applied voltage. (b)
AC circuit. (c) Waveform of current in the circuit.
Alternating Current

 After the first half-cycle, polarity reverses and


current flows in the opposite direction
 The negative half-cycle of applied voltage is as
useful as the positive half-cycle in producing
current
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
 The following specific magnitudes are used to compare
one wave to another:
 Peak value: Value of voltage or current at the positive or
negative maximum with respect to zero. Represented as
Vp and Ip
 Peak-to-peak: Voltage or current from the positive peak to
the negative peak. Represented as Vpp and Ipp
 Average value: Arithmetic average of all values in one
half-cycle (the full cycle average = 0)
 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective Value: Relates
the amount of a sine wave of voltage or current to the DC
values that will produce the same heating effect
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave
 Instantaneous values: The values of the
alternating voltage or current at any instant of time.
Represented as v and i
Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave

 The average value is 0.637 × peak value

 The rms value is 0.707 × peak value

 The peak value is 1.414 × rms value

 The peak-to-peak value is 2.828 × rms value


Voltage and Current Values for a Sine
Wave

Figure: Amplitude values for a sine wave of voltage or


current
Frequency

 Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles per


second
 Cycle is measured between two successive
points having the same value and direction
 One cycle per second is 1 Hz
Frequency

Sine Wave Frequency


(two cycles shown)
Amplitude

0 Time

0.5 sec 1 sec

f = 2 Hz
Period

 Period (T) is the time per cycle

 T = 1/f

 f = 1/T

 The higher the frequency, the shorter the period


Period

T
Amplitude

0 Time

0.0167 s

f = 1/T = 1/.0167 = 60 Hz
Wavelength
 Wavelength (λ) is the distance a wave travels in
one cycle
λ = v/f, where:
λ = wavelength
v = velocity of wave (such as sound or light)
f = frequency
 The higher the frequency, the lower the
wavelength
 The velocity of a radio wave is 3 × 108
meter/second
Wavelength
Phase Angle
 Phase angle (θ) is the angular difference
between the same points on two different
waveforms of the same frequency
 Two waveforms that have peaks and zeros at the
same time are in phase and have a phase angle
of 0°
 When one sine wave is at its peak while another
is at zero, the two are 90° out of phase
 When one sine wave has just the opposite phase
of another, they are 180° out of phase
Phase Angle

Figure: Two waves with voltages 90° out of phase. (a) Wave B
leads wave A by 90°. (b) Corresponding phasors VB and VA for
the two wave voltages with phase angle Θ = 90°
Phase Angle

Figure: Leading and lagging phase angles for 90° (a) When
phasor VA is the horizontal reference, phasor VB leads by 90°
(b) When phasor VB is the horizontal reference, phasor VA lags
by −90°
The Time Factor in Frequency and
Phase
 The physical factors represented on waveforms are
variations in amplitude, usually on the vertical scale,
with respect to equal intervals on the horizontal
scale, which can represent either distance or time
The angle of 360° represents the time for one cycle,
or the period T
The phase angle between two waves of the same
frequency indicates a specific difference in time
The time for a phase angle can be calculated as
Θ 1
t= ×
360 f
Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms
In many electronic applications, other waveforms
besides sine and cosine are important. Some of
those forms are shown below

Square wave
Common in digital electronic circuitry
Sawtooth wave

Used in timing and control circuitry


Pulse wave

Used in digital and control circuitry


Harmonic Frequencies
 Harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the

fundamental frequency
 Harmonics are useful in analyzing distorted sine
waves or nonsinusoidal waveforms
 A common unit for frequency multiples is the
octave, which is a range of 2:1. Doubling the
frequency range (e.g., from 200 to 400 Hz)
raises the frequency by one octave
 Another unit for representing frequency multiples
is the decade. A decade corresponds to a 10:1
range in frequencies (e.g., 30 kHz to 300 kHz)
Harmonic Frequencies

Figure: Fundamental and harmonic frequencies of a 100-Hz


square wave

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