Anatomy and physiology

PRESENTED BY:
PHIRI REAGAN-RN
BSc Nrs student- UNZA
 Introduction
• The human body is made up of systems
that work together .Each system is
associated with specific and sometimes
related function that is normally essential
for the well-being of an individual. If one
system fails, the consequences can be
extended to others.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy –the study of the structure of

the body and the physical relationships
between systems.

• Physiology –the study of how body

systems work, and the ways in which
their integrated activities maintain life.
 Gross Anatomy
• Regional – all structures in one part of the
body (such as the abdomen or leg)
• Systemic – gross anatomy of the body
studied by system
• Surface – study of internal structures as
they relate to the overlying skin
 Microscopic Anatomy

• Cytology – study of the cell

• Histology – study of tissues

 Developmental Anatomy

• Traces structural changes throughout life

• Embryology – study of developmental

changes of the body before birth
 Specialized Branches of
Anatomy
• Pathological anatomy – study of
structural changes caused by disease

• Radiographic anatomy – study of internal

structures visualized by X ray

• Molecular biology – study of anatomical

structures at a sub-cellular level
 Physiology
• Considers the operation of specific
organ systems
– Renal – kidney function
– Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous
system
– Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and
blood vessels
• Focuses on the functions of the body,
often at the cellular or molecular level
 Principle of Complementarity

• Function always reflects structure

• What a structure can do depends on its

specific form
Levels of Structural Organization
Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules Atoms

1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
Smooth form molecules
muscle
tissue
Heart
3 Tissue level
Cardiovascular
Tissues consist of
system Blood
similar types of
cells vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth Blood
muscle vessel
tissue (organ)
6 Organismal level
Connective The human organism is
tissue made up of many organ
systems
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level
different types of tissues Organ systems consist of different organs
that work together closely
Figure 1.1
 Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
• Cellular – cells are made of molecules
• Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
• Organ – made up of different types of tissues
• Organ system – consists of different organs
that work closely together
• Organismal – made up of the organ systems
 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis : (homeo= unchanging;
stasis= standing). Homeostasis is the ability
to maintain a relatively stable internal
environment in an ever-changing outside
world.
• The internal environment of the body is in a
dynamic state of equilibrium
• Chemical, thermal, and neural factors
interact to maintain homeostasis
 Homeostasis regulation
  Homeostatic regulation usually involves 3 things.

a. Receptor- that is sensitive to a particular

environmental change or stimulus.
 
b. A control center, or integration center, which receives
and processes the information from the receptor.
 
c. An effector- responds to the commands of the control
center and whose activity opposes or enhances the
stimulus.

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 homeostasis
D. Negative Feedback
 
1. The method of homeostatic regulation is called
negative feedback because the effector that is
activated by the control center opposes or eliminates
the stimulus.
 
2. Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body
involve negative feedback.
 
 
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 homeostasis
E. Positive Feedback

1. In positive feedback the initial

stimulus produces a response that
reinforces the stimulus.

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 Homeostasis and Disease

 
When homeostatic regulation fails, organ
systems begin to malfunction and the
individual experiences the symptoms of
illness or disease.

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 Anatomical Position

• Body erect
• Feet slightly apart
• Face looking forward
• Palms facing forward
• Thumbs point away
from body

Figure 1.7a
 Directional Terms
• Superior and inferior – toward and away
from the head, respectively
• Anterior and posterior – describes the
body structures relative to the ‘front’ and
‘back’ of the body.
• Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward
the midline, away from the midline, and
between a more medial and lateral structure
 Directional Terms

• Proximal and distal – closer to and

farther from the origin of the body

• Superficial and deep – toward and away

from the body surface
Directional Terms Table 1.1
Directional Terms Table 1.1
 Regional Terms: Anterior View

• Axial – head,
neck, and trunk
• Appendicular
– appendages
or limbs
• Specific
regional
terminology

Figure 1.7a
Regional Terms: Posterior View

Figure 1.7b
 Body Planes
• Sagittal – divides the body into right and
left parts
• Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that
lies on the midline
• Frontal or coronal – divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts
• Transverse or horizontal (cross section)
– divides the body into superior and
inferior parts
• Oblique section – cuts made diagonally
Body Planes Figure 1.8
Body Cavities

Figure 1.9a
 Body Cavities
• Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system,
and is divided into two subdivisions
– Cranial cavity is within the skull and
encases the brain
– Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral
column and encases the spinal cord
• Ventral cavity houses the internal organs
(viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions:
- Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities
Body Cavities Figure 1.9b
 Body Cavities
• Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural
cavities, the mediastinum, and the
pericardial cavity
– Pleural cavities – each houses a lung
– Mediastinum – contains the pericardial
cavity, and surrounds the remaining
thoracic organs
– Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart
 Body Cavities
• The abdominopelvic cavity is separated
from the superior thoracic cavity by the
dome-shaped diaphragm
• It is composed of two subdivisions
– Abdominal cavity – contains the
stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and
other organs
– Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and
contains the bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

• Visceral serosa covers the internal

organs

• Serous fluid separates the serosae

Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10a
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10b
 Other Body Cavities
• Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities
of the digestive organs
• Nasal –located within and posterior to the
nose
• Orbital – house the eyes
• Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that
transmit sound vibrations
• Synovial – joint cavities
 Abdominopelvic Regions

• Umbilical
• Epigastric
• Hypogastric
• Right and left iliac or
inguinal
• Right and left
lumbar
• Right and left
hypochondriac
Figure 1.11a
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions

Figure 1.11b
 Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• Right upper (RUQ)

• Left upper (LUQ)
• Right lower (RLQ)
• Left lower (LLQ)

Figure 1.12
Types of Body Movement
Retraction/Protraction
Abduction/Adduction
Flexion/Extension
Pronation/Supination
Dorsiflexion/Plantar Flexion
Depression/Elevation
Reposition/Opposition
Inversion/Eversion
External Rotation/Internal Rotation
Circumduction
External
Rotation

Internal
Rotation
Thumb
Reposition
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