DATABASE SYSTEMS

SI13013

PROGRAM STUDI SISTEM INFORMASI

UIVERRSITAS TARUMANAGARA
 Course Schedule
1. Introduction to Databases 7–9 Entity-Relationship Modeling
2. Database Environment 10–12 Normalization
3. The Relational Model 13. Conceptual Database Design
4. Relational Algebra 14. Logical Database Design
5. Relational Calculus
6. Database Planning, Design, and Administration

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 Chapter 4
Relational Algebra

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Chapter 4 - Objectives
• Meaning of the term relational completeness.
• How to form queries in relational algebra.
• How to form queries in tuple relational calculus.
• How to form queries in domain relational calculus.
• Categories of relational DML.

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Introduction
• Relational algebra and relational calculus are formal languages
associated with the relational model.
• Informally, relational algebra is a (high-level) procedural language
and relational calculus a non-procedural language.
• However, formally both are equivalent to one another.
• A language that produces a relation that can be derived using
relational calculus is relationally complete.

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Relational Algebra
• Relational algebra operations work on one or more relations to
define another relation without changing the original relations.
• Both operands and results are relations, so output from one
operation can become input to another operation.
• Allows expressions to be nested, just as in arithmetic. This
property is called closure.

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Relational Algebra
• Five basic operations in relational algebra: Selection, Projection,
Cartesian product, Union, and Set Difference.
• These perform most of the data retrieval operations needed.
• Also have Join, Intersection, and Division operations, which can
be expressed in terms of 5 basic operations.

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Relational Algebra Operations

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Relational Algebra Operations

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Selection (or Restriction)
• predicate (R)
• Works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains only those
tuples (rows) of R that satisfy the specified condition (predicate).

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Example - Selection (or Restriction)
• List all staff with a salary greater than £10,000.

salary > 10000 (Staff)

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Projection
• col1, . . . , coln(R)
• Works on a single relation R and defines a relation that contains a vertical
subset of R, extracting the values of specified attributes and eliminating
duplicates.

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Example - Projection
• Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showing only staffNo, fName,
lName, and salary details.

staffNo, fName, lName, salary(Staff)

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Union
• RS
• Union of two relations R and S defines a relation that contains all the tuples
of R, or S, or both R and S, duplicate tuples being eliminated.
• R and S must be union-compatible.

• If R and S have I and J tuples, respectively, union is obtained by

concatenating them into one relation with a maximum of (I + J)
tuples.

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Example - Union
• List all cities where there is either a branch office or a property for
rent.

city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)

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Set Difference
•R–S
• Defines a relation consisting of the tuples that are in relation R, but not in S.
• R and S must be union-compatible.

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Example - Set Difference
• List all cities where there is a branch office but no properties for rent.

city(Branch) – city(PropertyForRent)

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Intersection
•RS
• Defines a relation consisting of the set of all tuples that are in both R and S.
• R and S must be union-compatible.

• Expressed using basic operations:

R  S = R – (R – S)

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Example - Intersection
• List all cities where there is both a branch office and at least one
property for rent.

city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)

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Cartesian product
• RXS
• Defines a relation that is the concatenation of every tuple of relation R with
every tuple of relation S.

• List the names and comments of all clients who have viewed a property for
rent.
(clientNo, fName, lName(Client)) X (clientNo, propertyNo, comment (Viewing))

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Example
-
Cartesian
product

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Example - Cartesian product and Selection
• Use selection operation to extract those tuples where Client.clientNo =
Viewing.clientNo.
sClient.clientNo = Viewing.clientNo((ÕclientNo, fName, lName(Client))  (ÕclientNo, propertyNo,
comment(Viewing)))

Cartesian product and Selection can be reduced to a single operation called a

Join.

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Join Operations
• Join is a derivative of Cartesian product.

• Equivalent to performing a Selection, using join predicate as selection

formula, over Cartesian product of the two operand relations.

• One of the most difficult operations to implement efficiently in an

RDBMS and one reason why RDBMSs have intrinsic performance
problems.

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Join Operations
• Various forms of join operation
• Theta join
• Equijoin (a particular type of Theta join)
• Natural join
• Outer join
• Semijoin

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Theta join (-join)
•R F S
• Defines a relation that contains tuples satisfying the predicate F from the
Cartesian product of R and S.
• The predicate F is of the form R.ai  S.bi where  may be one of the
comparison operators (<, , >, , =, ).

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Theta join (-join)
• Can rewrite Theta join using basic Selection and Cartesian product
operations.

R S = F(R  S)
F

 Degree of a Theta join is sum of degrees of the operand relations R

and S. If predicate F contains only equality (=), the term Equijoin
is used.

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Example - Equijoin Kondisi yg hrs
Dipenuhi

• List the names and comments of all clients who have viewed a
property for rent.
(clientNo, fName, lName(Client)) Client.clientNo = Viewing.clientNo (clientNo, propertyNo,
comment(Viewing))

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Natural join
•R S
• An Equijoin of the two relations R and S over all common attributes x. One
occurrence of each common attribute is eliminated from the result.

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Example - Natural join
• List the names and comments of all clients who have viewed a
property for rent.
(clientNo, fName, lName(Client))
(clientNo, propertyNo, comment(Viewing))

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Outer join
• To display rows in the result that do not have matching values in
the join column, use Outer join.

•R S
• (Left) outer join is join in which tuples from R that do not have matching
values in common columns of S are also included in result relation.

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Example - Left Outer join
• Produce a status report on property viewings.

propertyNo, street, city(PropertyForRent)

Viewing

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Semijoin
•R F S
• Defines a relation that contains the tuples of R that participate in the join of R
with S.

 Can rewrite Semijoin using Projection and Join:

R F S = A(R F S)

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Example - Semijoin
• List complete details of all staff who work at the branch in Glasgow.

Staff Staff.branchNo = Branch.branchNo and Branch.city = ‘Glasgow’ Branch

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Division
• RS
• Defines a relation over the attributes C that consists of set of tuples from R
that match combination of every tuple in S.

• Expressed using basic operations:

T1  C(R)
T2  C((S X T1) – R)
T  T1 – T2

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Example - Division
• Identify all clients who have viewed all properties with three rooms.

(clientNo, propertyNo(Viewing))  (propertyNo(rooms = 3 (PropertyForRent)))

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Exercises
 Thank You

Reference: Database Systems A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and Management Fourth Edition.
Thomas M. Connolly and Carolyn E. Begg