Facilitating learning:

A Meta-cognitive Process
“If you teach a person what to learn,
you are preparing that person for
the past. If you teach a person how
to learn, you are preparing that
person for its future.”
 
- Cyril Houle -
 
Teaching – giving/transferring
Learning – acquiring/accepting

EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Learner – given focus

Teacher – prime mover
Learning Environment – headway
 Learner – embodied spirit

Sentient body - rational soul

Experiencing sensation - self-reflection
- free will
- intellectual abstractions

cognitive & affective faculties

instinct feelings
imagining emotions
intellect free rational
memory volition
 Influences/different Factors to become
Different to each other:

- environment/home
- biological aspect
- Teacher
- Personal attributes
- Professional attributes

Badge of Profession – sense of service (teacher)

Effective – doing the right thing

Efficiency – time, effort, motivation, method
7m’s should be
Managed:
P – lanning
M- oney
O – rganizing
M- aterials
L – eading
M- oment
C – ontrolling
M- anpower
S – taffing
M- achine
M- arket
M- anner
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES

The following 14 psychological factors

pertain to the learner and the learning
process. They focus on psychological factors
that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these
internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal
holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are
best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in
isolation. The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to 1)cognitive and meta-
cognitive, 2)motivational and affective,
3)developmental and social, and 4)individual
difference factors influencing learners and
learning.
 Cognitive and Meta-cognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

 learning of complex subject matter

2. Goals of the learning process

 can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledge
 can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking
 can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking

 beyond thinking/ deepening of knowledge

6. Context of learning
 influenced by environmental factors
Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on

Learning
 What and how much is learned?

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

 learner's creativity, higher order thinking,
and natural curiosity (w/in yourself)
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty

9. Effects of motivation and effort

acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

different opportunities and constraints for learning
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains.

* appropriateness of material
* intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains
* macro skills – interest and level of the student
* prior or past experiences – from school, home,
culture, and community factors.
* early and continuing parental – language interactions
and two-way
* awareness and understanding of development
differences among children – understand differences
11. Social influences on learning
influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

 different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of
prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity
 Learning is most effective when
differences in learners' linguistic, cultural,
and social backgrounds are taken into
account.

14. Standards and assessment

 Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress
including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment are integral parts of the
learning process.
 Alexander & Murphy summary of
the 14 Principles:

1. The knowledge base

2. Strategic processing and control

3. Motivation and affective

4. Development and Individual differences

5. Situation or context
 Review of the
Developmental Theories
 Freud
3 Components of Personality Erikson Piaget
5 Psychosexual Stages of 8 Psycho-social Stages of 4 Stages of Cognitive
development Development Development

Theories
Related To The
Learner’s
Development

Vygotsky
Kohlberg • On Language Brofenbrenner
3 Stages and 6 Substances of • Zone of Proximal Bio-Ecological System
Moral Development Development
Freud Psycho-Sexual Theory
• Freud proposed that there were 5
stages of development. Freud believed
that few people successfully completed
all 5 of the stages. Instead, he felt that
most people tied up their libido at
one of the stages, which prevented
them from using that energy at a later
stage.
 Stage Erogenous Zone Fixation

Oral (birth to 18 months) Mouth Drinking , eating, smoking or

nail biting

Anal (18-32 months) Anus Anal retentive and anal

expulsive

Phallic (3 – 6 years) Genitals Oedipus Complex and

Electra Complex

Latency (6- puberty)

Genital (puberty +) Genitals

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
“The principle goal of education is to
create men who are capable of
doing new things ,not simply to
repeating what other generaions
have done – men who are creative,
inventive and discovers”.
 Cognitive
Jean Piaget development theory
• Children "construct"
their understanding of
the world through their
active involvement and
interactions.
• Studied his 3 children to
focus not on what they
knew but how they knew
it.
• Described children's
understanding as their
"schemas” and how they
use:
– assimilation
– accommodation.
• Schema:
– The term “schema” to refer to the cognitive
structures by which individuals intellectually adapt
to and organize their environment.
• Assimilation:
– This is the process of fitting a new experience into
an existing or previously created cognitive structure
or schema.
• Accommodation:
– This is the process of creating a new schema.
• Equilibration
– Achieving proper balance between assimilation
and accommodation
– Disequilibrium
• this means there is a discrepancy between
what is perceived and what is understood. We
then exert effort through assimilation and
accommodation to establish equilibriumonce
more.
 Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages

• Sensori-motor
– Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his
senses and motor abilities to
understand the world
• Pre-operation
– Ages 2-7: the child uses metal
representations of objects and is able
to use symbolic thought and language
• Concrete operations
– Ages 7-11; the child uses logical
operations or principles when solving
problems
• Formal operations
– Ages 12 up; the use of logical
operations in a systematic fashion and
with the ability to use abstractions
 Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages
• Stage 1 : Sensory Motor Stage.(birth to
infancy)
– This is the stage when child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching
becomes more organized in his movement and
activity.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial
Development
 Stage Crisis Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue
Infancy Trust vs. Sensory Withdrawal Hope
Mistrust Distortion
Early Adulthhood Autonomy vs. Impulsivity Compulsion Will Power
Shame & Doubt

Pre-school Initiative vs. ruthlessness Inhibition Purpose

Guilt

School Age Industry vs. Narrow Inertia Competence

Inferiority Virtuosity

Adolescence Identity vs. Role Fanaticism Repudiation Fidelity

Confusion
Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Promiscuity Exclusivity Love
Isolation
Middle Adulthood Generativity vs. Over extention Rejectivity Care
Stagnation
Maturity Ego Integrity vs. Presumption Disdain Wisdom
Despair
 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
• Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical
moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind
people’s answers
• Proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning:
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
• Each level is based on the degree to which a person
conforms to conventional standards of society
• Each level has two stages that represent different
degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
 Lev Vygotsky

Socio-Cultural Theory
• Definition
– Sociocultural theory results from the dynamic
interaction between a person and
the surrounding social and cultural forces.
– 3 claims of Vygotsky
– a) Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools
– b) Functioning emerges out of social processes
– c) Developmental methods (Zone of Proximal
Development)
• Strategies to utilize the benefits of ZPD

• a) Scaffolding –requires demonstration, while

controlling the environment so that one can
take things step by step.
• b) Reciprocal teaching – open dialog between
student and teacher which goes beyond
simple question and answer session.
• Vygotsky theorized that human development is not
something that is fixed and eternal. It will change as a result
of  historical development.

 Cultural Influences
– a) Imitative learning
– b) Instructed learning
– c) Collaborative learning

Principles

– a) Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given

age.
– b) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.
 5 Main Points

• a) Use of Zone of Proximal Development

• b) Interaction with other people is important
for cognitive growth
• c) Culture can make daily living more efficient and
effective.
• d) Advanced mental methods start through social
activities.
• e) Increase of the independent use of language
and thought during a child’s first few years of life.
Developmental Systems Theory

The belief that

development can't be
explained by a single
concept, but rather by a
complex system
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory or
bioecological theory
• The varied systems of the
environment and the
interrelationships among
the systems shape a
child's development.
• Both the environment and
biology influence the
child's development.
• The environment affects
the child and the child
influences the
environment
 Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Model
• The microsystem - activities and
interactions in the child's immediate
surroundings: parents, school,
friends, etc.
• The mesosystem - relationships among
the entities involved in the child's
microsystem: parents' interactions
with teachers, a school's interactions
with the daycare provider
• The exosystem - social institutions
which affect children indirectly: the
parents' work settings and policies,
extended family networks, mass media,
community resources
• The macrosystem - broader cultural
values, laws and governmental
resources
• The chronosystem - changes which occur
during a child's life, both
personally, like the birth of a
sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi
war.
 Outline of 20th Century Theories

• Psychoanalytical Theories
– Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud
– Psychosocial: Erik Erikson
• Cognitive Theories
– Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget
– Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky
• Systems Theories
– Ecological Systems: Urie Bronfenbrenner
 Students with Exceptionalities
What is Special Education?

Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the

parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a
disability.
Before 1975 and the passage of the first federal
special education law, four million children with
disabilities did not receive the help they needed in
school and another one million were completely
excluded from school.
Discrimination and the Beginning of Change

• Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision

clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,” some professionals
began questioning whether separate classes provided
students with disabilities with an appropriate education
• After decades of research, what had become clear was that
the special education was not just a means of assisting
children with disabilities; it had also become a means of
discriminating against students who might be perceived by
educators as more challenging to reach
Prevalence of Students with Disabilities
• Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been
estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-age
population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size
classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4
individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities
• Students with specific learning disabilities represent
approximately half of all those receiving special education,
followed by speech or language impairments, mental
retardation, and emotional disabilities
Prevalence of Students with Disabilities

• In the past decade, the number of students

indentified in having disabilities has grown
significantly
• Some suggest that this increase is in part
because of the desire on the part of educators
and parents to give help to struggling students
• What other factors do you think might
contribute to this rise?
 Providing an Unwavering Commitment
• At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken such bold
and noble measures to mandate the educational rights of all
children, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities
• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the guarantee
for a free and appropriate public education, the courts have
repeatedly and consistently ruled that schools simply must
provide the necessary resources to teach all children,
regardless of the physical or mental handicaps they may
manifest.
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped children act (1975)
• First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children to
free appropriate public education
• It requires the school systems to include the parents when
meeting about the child or making decisions about his/ her
education
• It mandated an individualized education program (IEP) which
must include short and long term goals
• It also requires that the child be placed in the least restrictive
environment
 Least Restrictive Environment
• "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who has
a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with
non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible.
• They should have access to the general education curriculum,
extracurricular activities, or any other program that non-
disabled peers would be able to access
• The student should be provided with supplementary aids and
services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a
setting with non-disabled peers
 Individualized Education Program
(IEP)

• If team members decide that a student is eligible for special

education, they then prepare an IEP
• This document summarizes all of the information gathered
concerning the student, sets the expectations of what the
student will learn over the next year, and it prescribes the
types and amount of special services the student will receive.
• Must be received and updated annually
 Required Components of an IEP
• Must address how the student’s disability affects
involvement and progress in the general education
• Annual goals and short term objectives
• Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who do not have
disabilities, accommodations for testing, dates of
effectiveness of IEP
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped Act
Amendments (1983)
• Allows for federal funding to create parent training
and information centers so that parents can learn
how to protect the rights of their child
• Also provided financial incentives for transition
services from school to adult living for students with
disabilities
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA)(1990)
• Renamed earlier laws and their amendments
• More importantly, it replaced the word
“handicapped” with the word “disabled”, therefore
expanding services for these students
• It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater
inclusion in community schools
Accomplishments and Disappointments
of Special Education Law
• The passage of federal special education law was
revolutionary and it had many positive effects; many
students who had been completely left out of the
public school system were now guaranteed an
education
• However, the passage of the law did not address all
the issues of educating students with disabilities
 Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information regarding a
student’s disability is highly confidential
• That information may not be shared with
anyone who is not directly working with the
student
• Once records are not longer needed, a
procedure must be in place so that they are
destroyed
 Who Receives Special Education?
• Hearing impairments
• Specific learning
disabilities • Orthopedic
impairments
• Speech or language
• Other health
impairments
impairments
• Mental retardation
• Autism
• Emotional disturbance
• Traumatic brain injury
• Deaf/ blindness (both)
• Multiple disabilities
• Visual impairments
• Developmental delays
 Educational Practices
• Inclusive Practices…lots of debates!
• Inclusion is a belief system shared by every member of a
school as a learning community about the responsibility of
educating all students so that they can reach their potential.
• Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted and talented,
those who are at risk for failure because of their life
circumstances, those with disabilities, and those who are
average learners.
• Accommodations…mark in book, separate setting, extended
time, read alouds, reduced number of items per page,
alternate test
 Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered inclusive
practice varies widely depending on state and local
policies related to inclusion, the resources available,
teacher and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room
every day for the entire class period or a few times a
week for ½ a class period
 Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are reporting
all too often the hardships they face due to the lack of
available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary
funding of exceptional children so that no child has to use
materials that are worn, out of date, or even worse, contain
information that is no longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to meet
the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by
providing them the resources that are required for a sound
education
 What EC teachers are Saying
• Success must never be based on single test
scores
• No other issue has raised more concern with
EC teachers than that of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
What about Gifted and Talented Students?

• IDEA does not provide for special education

for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of students
who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes students
with disabilities are also gifted and talented
 What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified by
professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding
abilities are capable of high performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across
intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-related
area, or unusual organizational power to bring about desired
results
• These children may require differentiated educational
programs and services beyond those normally provided by
the regular school program in order to realize their
contribution to self and society
 Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve 12% of
students under the “gifted” label
• Depending on the state, the prevalence may
range from 2 to 22% of students being served
 Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display curiosity, a
strong need to know and to understand how the
world works
• A student who is gifted may understand language
and mathematics at an earlier age than is typical and
become known to parents and teachers by these
skills
• They may bring high energy levels to school tasks,
may display characteristics of perfectionism
 Educational Practices
• Ability Grouping
• Full time or part time separate classes
• Specialized schools
• Cluster Grouping
• Inclusive practices
• Acceleration
• Enrichment
• Differentiation
 Individual Differences
(Student Diversity)
Individual Benefits of
Differences Diversity in the
Factors Classroom

Classroom
Strategies for
Student
Diversity
 Individual Differences
Factors
Socioeconomic Status
Thinking/Learning Style
Exceptionalities
 Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
Students' self-awareness is
enhanced by diversity
Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development
 Benefits of Diversity
in the Classroom
 Student diversity prepares
learners for their role as
responsible members of the society
 Student diversity can promote
harmony
 Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity
 Encourage learners to share their
personal history and experiences
 Integrate learning experiences and
activities which promote students'
multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
 Classroom Strategies
for Student Diversity
 Aside from highlighting diversity,
identify patterns of unity that
transcend group differences.
 Communicate high expectations to
students from all sub-groups.
 Use varied instructional methods to
accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.

 Vary the examples you use to

illustrate concepts in order to
provide multiple contexts that are
relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds.
 Adapt to the students’ diverse
backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities
concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it.
 Diversify your methods of assessing
and evaluating student learning.
 Purposely, form small-discussion
groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups
of students with different learning
styles, different cultural
backgrounds, etc.
Learning/Thinking
styles and multiple
intelligences
 LEARNING/THINKING STYLEs
-refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information.
- they describe a person’s typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving.

SENSORY PREFERENCES
Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of
sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the
following types :

-Visual Learners
- Auditory Learners
- Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners
 Visual learners- tend to learn better when a
variety of visual aids are used.
Visual- iconic
-refers to those who are more
interested in visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays, pictures.
Visual- symbolic
- refers to those who feel
comfortable with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formula or the written word.
AUDITORY LEARNERS- recieve information best by
listening.
Listeners
- they remember things said to
them and make the information their own.
Talkers
- they are the one who prefer to
talk and discuss. ( auditory- verbal processors)
Tactile/ kinesthetic learners- they
tend to prefer learning by doing/
experiencing things.
Characteristics of tactile learners:
- Is good at sports.
- Can’t sit still for long.
- Is not great at spelling.
- Does not have great handwriting.
- Like science lab.
- Studies with loud music on.
- Like adventure books, movies.
- Likes role playing.
- Takes breaks when studying.
- Builds models.
- Is involved in martial arts, dance
- Is fidgety during lectures.
 Global–analytic continuum

analytic- they tend toward the

linear, step- by- step processes of
learning. (tree seers)
Global- they lean towards non-
linear thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle elements.
(forest seers)
 Left- brain/
right- brain continuum
left- brained PERSON- is
portrayed as the linear. (analytic)
right- brained person- is viewed
as non- linear. (global)
 Successive processor (left brain)
- details leading to a conceptual
understanding.
SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR (RIGHT
BRAIN)
- general concept going on to
specifics.
 LEFT BRAIN( ANALYTIC) right brain(global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. VERBAL 1. VISUAL
2. RESPONDS TO WORD MEANING 2. RESPONDS TO TONE OF VOICE
3. SEQUENTIAL 3. RANDOM
4. PROSESSES INFORMATION 4. PROCESSES INFORMATION
LINEARLY IN VARIED ORDER
5. RESPONDS TO LOGIC 5. RESPONDS TO EMOTION
6. PLANS AHEAD 6. IMPULSIVE
7. RECALLS PEOPLE’S NAME 7. RECALLS PEOPLE FACES
8. SPEAKS WITH FEW GESTURES 8. GESTURES WHEN SPEAKING
9. PUNCTUAL 9. LESS PUNCTUAL
10. PREFERS FORMAL STUDY 10. PREFERS SOUND/ MUSIC
DESIGN BACKGROUND WHILE STUDYING
11. PREFERS BRIGHT LIGHTS WHILE 11. PREFERS FREQUENT MOBILITY
STUDYING. WHILE STUDYING
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- is an educational theory, first developed by Howard Gardner,
that describes an array of different kinds of intelligences exhibited
by human beings.

Howard Gardner
- he believes that different intelligences may be
independent abilities and all of us possess the intelligences but in
varying degrees of strength and skill.
- the theory was first laid out in Gardner’s 1983 book
Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and has
been further refined in subsequent years.
 intelligences
- an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to
solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more
cultures.

9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE

1.VISUAL/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
(pICTURE SMART)
- learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially.
2.VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART)
- learning through the spoken and written
word.
3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGICAL ( NUMBER SMART/ LOGIC SMART)
- learning through reasoning and problem solving.
 4. BODILY/ KINESTHETIc ( BODY SMART)
- learning through interaction with one’s environment.
5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART)
- learning through patterns, rhythms and music.
6. INTRAPERSONAl (SELF SMART)
- learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART)
- learning through interaction with others.
8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART)
- learning through classification,categories and
hierarchies.
9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART)
- learning by seeing the “big picture”
 Students with Exceptionalities

What is Special Education?

• Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the
parents, to meet the unique needs of a child
with a disability
• Before 1975 and the passage of the first federal
special education law, four million children with
disabilities did not receive the help they needed
in school and another one million were
completely excluded from school
 Discrimination and the
Beginning of Change
• Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education
decision clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,”
some professionals began questioning whether
separate classes provided students with disabilities
with an appropriate education
• After decades of research, what had become clear
was that the special education was not just a means
of assisting children with disabilities; it had also
become a means of discriminating against students
who might be perceived by educators as more
challenging to reach
 Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been
estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the
school-age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in
an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is
conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or
more exceptionalities
• Students with specific learning disabilities represent
approximately half of all those receiving special
education, followed by speech or language
impairments, mental retardation, and emotional
disabilities
 Prevalence of Students with
Disabilities
• In the past decade, the number of students
indentified in having disabilities has grown
significantly
• Some suggest that this increase is in part
because of the desire on the part of
educators and parents to give help to
struggling students
• What other factors do you think might
contribute to this rise?
 Providing an Unwavering
Commitment
• At no point in history have we, as a nation,
taken such bold and noble measures to mandate
the educational rights of all children, including
those with disabilities and exceptionalities
• Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and
the guarantee for a free and appropriate public
education, the courts have repeatedly and
consistently ruled that schools simply must
provide the necessary resources to teach all
children, regardless of the physical or mental
handicaps they may manifest.
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped children act
(1975)
• First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children
to free appropriate public education
• It requires the school systems to include the parents
when meeting about the child or making decisions about
his/ her education
• It mandated an individualized education program (IEP)
which must include short and long term goals
• It also requires that the child be placed in the least
restrictive environment
 Least Restrictive Environment
• "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who has
a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with
non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible.
• They should have access to the general education curriculum,
extracurricular activities, or any other program that non-
disabled peers would be able to access
• The student should be provided with supplementary aids and
services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a
setting with non-disabled peers
 Individualized Education Program
(IEP)

• If team members decide that a student is eligible for special

education, they then prepare an IEP
• This document summarizes all of the information gathered
concerning the student, sets the expectations of what the
student will learn over the next year, and it prescribes the
types and amount of special services the student will receive.
• Must be received and updated annually
 Required Components of an IEP
• Must address how the student’s disability affects
involvement and progress in the general education
• Annual goals and short term objectives
• Supplementary aids and services, assistive
technology, participation with peers who do not have
disabilities, accommodations for testing, dates of
effectiveness of IEP
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped Act
Amendments (1983)
• Allows for federal funding to create parent training
and information centers so that parents can learn
how to protect the rights of their child
• Also provided financial incentives for transition
services from school to adult living for students with
disabilities
 The Law and Exceptional Children
• PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA)(1990)
• Renamed earlier laws and their amendments
• More importantly, it replaced the word
“handicapped” with the word “disabled”, therefore
expanding services for these students
• It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater
inclusion in community schools
Accomplishments and Disappointments
of Special Education Law
• The passage of federal special education law was
revolutionary and it had many positive effects; many
students who had been completely left out of the
public school system were now guaranteed an
education
• However, the passage of the law did not address all
the issues of educating students with disabilities
 Confidentiality
• IDEA specifies that information regarding a
student’s disability is highly confidential
• That information may not be shared with
anyone who is not directly working with the
student
• Once records are not longer needed, a
procedure must be in place so that they are
destroyed
 Who Receives Special Education?
• Hearing impairments
• Specific learning
disabilities • Orthopedic
impairments
• Speech or language
• Other health
impairments
impairments
• Mental retardation
• Autism
• Emotional disturbance
• Traumatic brain injury
• Deaf/ blindness (both)
• Multiple disabilities
• Visual impairments
• Developmental delays
 Educational Practices
• Inclusive Practices…lots of debates!
• Inclusion is a belief system shared by every member of a
school as a learning community about the responsibility of
educating all students so that they can reach their potential.
• Inclusion encompasses students who are gifted and talented,
those who are at risk for failure because of their life
circumstances, those with disabilities, and those who are
average learners.
• Accommodations…mark in book, separate setting, extended
time, read alouds, reduced number of items per page,
alternate test
 Inclusion
• In today’s schools, what is considered inclusive
practice varies widely depending on state and local
policies related to inclusion, the resources available,
teacher and administrator understanding and
commitment, and parent and community support
• It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room
every day for the entire class period or a few times a
week for ½ a class period
 Implications
• Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are reporting
all too often the hardships they face due to the lack of
available resources
• The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary
funding of exceptional children so that no child has to use
materials that are worn, out of date, or even worse, contain
information that is no longer current
• It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to meet
the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by
providing them the resources that are required for a sound
education
 What EC teachers are Saying
• Success must never be based on single test
scores
• No other issue has raised more concern with
EC teachers than that of paperwork
• HUGE SHORTAGE!!
What about Gifted and Talented Students?

• IDEA does not provide for special education

for these students
• Only 30 states mandate education of students
who are gifted and talented
• Important to note that sometimes students
with disabilities are also gifted and talented
 What is Giftedness?
• Gifted and talented students are those identified by
professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding
abilities are capable of high performance
• Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across
intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-related
area, or unusual organizational power to bring about desired
results
• These children may require differentiated educational
programs and services beyond those normally provided by
the regular school program in order to realize their
contribution to self and society
 Prevalence
• Estimates vary considerably due to
disagreement over definition
• On average, school districts serve 12% of
students under the “gifted” label
• Depending on the state, the prevalence may
range from 2 to 22% of students being served
 Characteristics
• Students who are gifted usually display curiosity, a
strong need to know and to understand how the
world works
• A student who is gifted may understand language
and mathematics at an earlier age than is typical and
become known to parents and teachers by these
skills
• They may bring high energy levels to school tasks,
may display characteristics of perfectionism
 Educational Practices
• Ability Grouping
• Full time or part time separate classes
• Specialized schools
• Cluster Grouping
• Inclusive practices
• Acceleration
• Enrichment
• Differentiation
MODULE 10
 ALBINO, Anne Marie
CANICULA, Marielle
CORDOBA, Joel Mari
DELA CRUZ, Mikko
and
SUAREZ, Rafael Lawrence
together with
Theories of Learning
Sr. Angelina Julom, CSFN
present

Edward Chace
Tolman
 Edward Chace Tolman
(1886-1959)
• Born in Newton, Massachusetts
• Received academic degrees in
Electrochemistry and Psychology
(M.A. 1912, Ph.D. 1915)
• He was released from
Northwestern University for “lack
of teaching success”, but more
likely it was because of his pacifism
during wartime
• His theory of learning can be looked on as
a blend of Gestalt theory and behaviorism

• He saw little value in the introspective

approach

• He agreed on molar behavior rather than

molecular behavior
 Molar Behavior
• Purposive
• Tolman’s major work was entitled Purposive
Behavior in Animals and Men
• Related to the Gestalt theory
• Tolman felt that whole behavior patterns
had a meaning that would be lost if studied
from an elementistic viewpoint
• It is in contrast with the idea of molecular
behavior
 Purposive Behaviorism
• Explains goal-directed behavior
• behavior is PURPOSIVE, COGNITIVE & MOLAR
Example: the searching behavior of a rat in a maze
will persist until food is found 
• Goal or Purpose of Rat: To find the food
• The purposive behavior is the fact that the rat
still keeps up with the maze
 Major Theoretical Concepts
• According to Tolman, taking his lead from the
Gestalt theorists, learning is essentially a
process of discovering what leads to what in
the environment.
• Emphasizer – an organism’s drive state
determines which aspect of the environment
will be emphasized in its perceptual field.
• Principle of Least Effort – when an organism
chooses the one that will require the
shortest route/shortcuts or anything that will
only require minimum amount of energy.
• Cognitive map – a picture of something
that an organism usually is encountering
when it do something.
Example: when a person walks on the same
street everyday, he will know that when he
looks/turns to his left, he will see this and
when he looks/turns to the right, he will
see that.
 Vicarious Trial and Error
• Vicarious Trial and Error - characteristic of
rats wherein they consistently stop or pause
at choice points.
• Tests in this type of trial and error are tested
cognitively rather than behaviorally.
Learning vs. Performance
• Latent Learning – learning that is
not translated into performance
 Tolman and Honzik (1930) ran an
experiment involving 3 groups of
rats learning to solve a maze.
 The first group was regularly
reinforced. The second one had to
wait until the 11th day. The third
one was Tolman’s interest.
 After the experiment, he concluded
that the performance of those who
were reinforced after the 11th day,
compared to the one which was
reinforced continually, was much
better if not equally better.
• 3 things that Tolman observed:

(1) There is a slight improvement in the

performance of the group that was never
really reinforced.
(2) The reinforced group showed steady
improvement throughout the duration.
(3) When the reinforcement was introduced,
performance vastly improved.
• The results from the experiment proved
Tolman’s statement that reinforcements are
performance variable not a learning variable.

• Latent Extinction – occurs simply because

the organism was presented in a situation
where a reinforcer is no longer present. Such
extinction does not depend on the
performance of non-reinforced response.
 Response Learning vs. Place Learning
• Response Learning – learning of specific
responses that are effective in solving a
problem and thereby providing
reinforcement.

• Place learning – learning where an object is

located. For Tolman, once the location of an
object is known, it can be reached by any
number of alternate routes.
 Reinforcement Expectancy
• Tolman predicted that if reinforcers were
changed, behavior would be disrupted
because in Reinforcement Expectancy, a
particular reinforcer becomes a part of what
is expected.
• Cognitive dissonance – negative drive state
and the person experiencing it seeks ways
to reduce it, just as the person experiencing
hunger seeks to reduce hunger drive.
 Individual Difference Variables

• As per suggested by Tolman,

• H = heredity
• A = age
• T = previous training
• E = special endocrine, drug, or vitamin
conditions
 Intervening Variables
• Created by the theorist to aid in explaining the
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables

• In-between behavior and environmental and

individual difference variables

• Examples: Demand, Appetite, Differentiation,

Motor Skill, Hypotheses, Biases
 Behaviorist
Perspective
Pavlov,Thorndike,Watson,Skin
ner
Behaviorism:
Behaviorism
• focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior.
•It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned
through conditioning and reinforcement ( rewards
and punishment )
•It does not give much attention to the mind , and
the possibility of thought processes occurring in the
mind.
•Contributions in the development of the
behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov,
Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
 •a Russian psychologist is well
known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus
substitution.

•Most renowned experiment

involved meat, a dog and a bell.
Ivan
Measuring the dog’s salivation
Pavlov
in order to study digestion.
Classical
Conditioning
•Stimulus generalization- once the dog has
learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it
will salivate at other similar sound.
•Extinction- if you stop pairing the bell with
the food, salivation will eventually cease in
response to the bell.
•Spontaneous recovery- extinguished
responses can be recovered after an elapsed
time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog
is not presented with food.
•Discrimination- the dog could learn to
discriminate between similar bells and
discern which bell would result in the
presentation of food and which would not.
•Higher-order conditioning- once the dog
has been conditioned to associate the bell
with the food, another unconditioned
stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung.
Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of
the light without the sound of the bell.
 •He explained that learning is the
result of associations forming
between stimuli and responses.
Such association or habits become
strengthened or weakened by
nature and frequency of the S-R
pairings.
•The main principle of
Edward connectionism was that learning
could be adequately explained
Thorndi without considering any
ke unobservable internal states.
Theory of connectionism
- stated that learning has taken place when a strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed.

Three primary law

1. Law of effect- S-R is strengthened when the
consequence is positive and weakened when the
consequence is negative.
2. Law of exercise- when S-R bond is practice the stronger
it will become.
3. Law of readiness- the more readiness the learner has
to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the
bond between them.
Principles derived from theory of
connectionism:
1.Learning requires both practice and
rewards (law of effect/exercise).
2.A series of S-R connection can be chained
together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).
3.Transfer of learning occurs because
previously encountered situations.
4.Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned.
 • work with Pavlov's ideas
•Considered that humans are
born with a few reflexes and the
emotional reactions of love and
rage.
•Experiment on Albert and a
John white rat
Watson •His work did clearly show the
role of conditioning in the
development of emotional
responses to certain stimuli.
 • operant conditioning

•Reinforcement
+R-any stimulus given or
added to increase the
response.
-R- any stimulus that
Burrhus results in the increased
Frederick frequency of a response
Skinner when it is withdrawn or
removed.
 Albert Bandura:
Social / Observational Learning
• Basic Premise
• We learn behavior through observation
• Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through
observing consequences of behaviors of others
• Modelling
• Observe behavior of others and repeat the
behavior
• Bobo doll studies (1963)
• Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through
exposure to a model
 Factors Influencing Modeling: Impact
Tendency to Imitate
• Characteristics of the models: similarity, age,
sex, status, prestige, simple vs. complex
behavior
• Characteristics of observers: Low self-
confidence, low self-esteem, reinforcement
for imitation
• Reward consequences of behavior: Directly
witnessing associated rewards
The Observational Learning Process: 4 Steps

• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Production processes
• Incentive and motivational processes
 Step 1: Attentional Processes
• Developing cognitive processes to pay
attention to a model- more developed
processes allow for better attention
• Must observe the model accurately enough to
imitate behavior
 Step 2: Retention Processes
• To later imitate behavior, must remember
aspects of the behavior
• Retain information in 2 ways:
– Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex:
Forming a mental picture
– Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex:
Silently rehearsing steps in behavior
 Step 3: Production Processes

• Taking imaginal and verbal representations

and translating into overt behavior- practice
behaviors
• Receive feedback on accuracy of behavior-
how well have you imitated the modeled
behavior?
• Important in mastering difficult skills
– Ex: Driving a car
Step 4: Incentive and Motivational Processes

• With incentives, observation more quickly

becomes action, pay more attention, retain
more information
• Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated
reinforcements
 Aspects of the Self: Self-reinforcement and
Self-efficacy
• Self-reinforcement: Rewards or punishments given to
oneself for reaching, exceeding or falling short of
personal expectations
– Ex: Pride, shame, guilt
• Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with life
– Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy
– Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy
 Self-Efficacy
• High self-efficacy
– Believe can deal effectively with life events
– Confident in abilities
– Expect to overcome obstacles effectively
• Low self-efficacy
– Feel unable to exercise control over life
– Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile
 Sources of Information in Determining Self-
efficacy
• Performance attainment
– Most influential
– Role of feedback
– More we achieve, more we believe we can
achieve
– Leads to feelings of competency and control
 Sources of Information in Determining Self-
efficacy
• Vicarious experience
– Seeing others perform successfully
– If they can, I can too
• Verbal persuasion
– Verbal reminders of abilities
• Physiological and emotional arousal
– Related to perceived ability to cope
– Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy
– Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
• Childhood
– Infancy: Direct modeling immediately following
observation, develop self-efficacy with control
over environment
– By age 2: Developed attentional, retention and
production processes to model behavior some
time after observation, not immediately
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
• Adolescence
– Involves coping with new demands
– Success depends on level of self-efficacy
established during childhood
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
• Adulthood: 2 Periods
– Young adulthood:
• Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood
• High self-efficacy to adjust successfully
– Middle adulthood:
• Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
• Need to find opportunities to continue to enhance self-
efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
• Old age:
– Decline in mental/physical function, retirement
– Requires reappraisal of abilities
– Belief in ability to perform a task is key throughout
the lifespan
 Application of Social Learning Theory:
Behavior Modification
• Fears and phobias
– Guided participation: Observe and imitate
– Covert modeling: Imaginal
• Anxiety
– Fear of medical treatment
– Test anxiety
 Assessment of Bandura’s Theory: Self-
efficacy
• Age and gender differences
• Physical appearance
• Academic performance
• Career choice and job performance
• Physical health
• Mental health
• Coping with stress
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory:
Television and Aggressive Behaviors
• Relationship between watching violence
and imitating violence
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory
• Strengths:
– Focus on observable behavior- research
support
– Practical application to real-world problems
– Large-scale changes
 "In psychology ... we have wholes
which, instead of being the sum of
parts existing independently, give
their parts specific functions or
properties that can only be defined
in relation to the whole in
question."

Wolfgang Köhler: Human

Perception. (La perception
humaine, 1930)
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

 The term “gestalt” means “form” or

“configuration”.
 Proponents are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Kofka
 They studied perception and concluded that
perceivers (or learners) were not passive, but
rather active.
 GESTALT PRINCIPLES

 Law of Proximity
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Closure
 Law of Good Continuation
 Law of Good Pragnanz
 Law of Figure / Ground
  Law of
Proximity
 Elements that are
closer together will
be perceived as a
coherent object.
  Law of
Similarity
 Elements that
look similar will be
perceived as part of
the same form.
  Law of
Closure
 We tend to fill the
gaps or “close” the
figures we perceive.
 Law of Good
Continuation
 Individuals have
the tendency to
continue contours
whenever the
elements of the
pattern establish an
implied direction.
 Law of Good
Pragnanz
 The stimulus will
be organized into as
good a figure as
possible.
  Law of
Figure /
Ground
 We tend to pay
attention and
perceive things in
the foreground first.
 Gestalt Principles and the
Teaching-Learning Process

“An individual has inner

and outer forces that
affect his perceptions
and also his learning.”

Kurt Lewin
Inner Forces

 Motivation
 Attitudes
 Feelings
Outer forces

 Attitude
 Behavior
 MODULE 13
INFORMATION PROCESSING
 Jerome Bruner
Born in New York City, October 1, 1915. He
received his A.B. degree from Duke University in
1937 and his Ph.D in 1947 from Harvard.
He was on the faculty in the
Department of Psychology at Harvard
University from 1952-1972. Next, he was at
Oxford from 1972-1980. Later, he joined
the New York University of Law.
 Jerome Bruner
In 1960, he published The Process of
Education; a landmark book which led to much
experimentation and a broad range of educational
programs in 1960’s.
Howard Gardner and other young
researchers worked under Bruner and were much-
influenced by his work.
In the early 70’s, he left Harvard to teach
in University of Oxford for several years. He
returned to Harvard in 1979.
 BRUNER'S MAIN CONCEPTS

Three ways to represent knowledge

Spiral Curriculum
Principles of instruction by Bruner
Discovering Learning
Four major aspects that should address in
theory of instruction
Four things about object
Several Kinds of Categories
 Three Ways to Represent Knowledge
1. Enactive Representation
At the earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical objects and
the outcomes of these actions.

2. Iconic Representation
This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.
3. Symbolic Representation
In this third stage, the learner has
developed the ability to think in abstract
terms.
 Spiral Curriculum

Teachers must revisit the curriculum

by teaching the same content in
different ways depending on students’
developmental levels.
 Readiness

Instruction must be concerned with

the experiences and contexts that
make the student willing and able to
learn.
 Spiral Organization

Instruction must be structured so

that it can be easily grasped by the
student.
 Going Beyond the
Information Given
Instruction should be designed to
facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps.
 Discovering Learning

Refers to obtaining knowledge for

oneself.
 Predisposition to Learn

He introduced the ideas of

“readiness for learning.”
 Structure of Knowledge

The ways in which a body of

knowledge can be structured so that it
can be most readily grasped by the
learner.
 Effective Sequencing

No one sequencing will fit every

learner, but in general, the lesson can
be presented in increasing difficulty.
 Reinforcement

Rewards and punishment should be

selected and paced appropriately.
 Criterial Attributes

Required characteristics for

inclusion of an object in a category.
 How the criterial
attributes are combined
The second rule prescribes how the
criterial attributes are combined.
 Weight to various
properties
The third rule assigns weight to
various properties.
 Sets acceptance limits
on the attributes
The fourth rule sets acceptance
limits on attributes.
 Identity Categories

Categories include objects based on

their attributes or features.
 Equivalent Categories

Equivalence can be determined by

affective criteria, which render
objects equivalent by emotional
reactions, functional criteria, based on
related functions.
 Coding Systems

Categories that serve to recognize

sensory input.
 The principles of Bruner launched
the notion that people interpret world
mostly in terms of similarities in
differences. This is a valuable
contribution to how individuals
construct their own models or view of
the world.
 David Ausubel : Meaningful Verbal
Learning & Subsumption Theory
David P. Ausubel was born in 1918

Grew up in Brooklyn, NY

Attended the University of Pennsylvania, taking the

pre-medical course and majoring in Psychology

In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time to his

psychiatric practice

His principal interests in psychiatry have been general

psychopathology, ego development, drug addiction, and forensic
psychiatry

In 1976 he received the Thorndike Award from the American

Psychological Association for "Distinguished Psychological
Contributions to Education".
 Introduction

-Supported the theory that pupils form &

organise knowledge by themselves
-Emphasized the importance of verbal learning
/ language-related learning which he consider
to be very effective for pupils of the age 11 or
12 & above
-Pupils gradually learn to associate new
knowledge with existing concepts in their
mental structures
-To ensure meaningful teaching, necessary to
avoid rote memorising of facts. Pupils need to
manipulate ideas actively
 Advance Organizer

-Presents an overview of the information to

be covered in detail during the exposition
that follows
-Can be classified : exposition or comparison
type
 Advance Organizer of the
Exposition Type

-While presenting new material

-Use beginning of lesson
-Presents several encompassing
generalisations where detailed contents
will be added later
 Advance Organizer of the Comparison Type
-Useful when the knowledge to be presented is new
to pupils
-Compares new material with knowledge already
known by emphasising the similarities between 2
types of material & showing the information that
is to be learnt
-Ausubel’s teaching approach is deductive in nature
 SPECIFIC

Step 4:The pupils study specific

examples

Step 3:The teacher presents

examples

Step 2:The teacher explains

important terms

Step 1:The teacher presents

general statement or abstraction
of lesson

ADVANCE ORGANIZER

GENERAL
Deductive Teaching Model: Advance Organizer as the basis of the
lesson
 A concerned with how students Learning is based on the
learn large amounts of meaningful representational, superordinate
material from verbal/textual and combinatorial processes that
presentations in a learning activities occur during the reception of
information.

MeaningfulReception
Meaningful Reception
LearningTheory
Learning Theory

Meaningful learning results when A primary process in learning is

new information is acquired by subsumption in which new material
linking the new information in the is related to relevant ideas in the
learner's own cognitive structure existing cognitive structure on a non-
verbatim basis (previous knowledge)

Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning

The processes of meaningful learning

Ausubel proposed four processes by which

meaningful learning can occur :
Derivative subsumption
Correlative subsumption
Superordinate learning
Combinatorial learning
 Derivative subsumption
• Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is
an instance or example of a concept that pupils have already learned

Example (Stage 1) :
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE : Let's suppose Ali have
acquired a basic concept such as "tree” – have green leave,
branch, fruits
Ali learn about a kind of tree that he have never seen
before “persimmon tree” - conforms to his previous
understanding of “tree’’
His new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to the
concept of tree, without substantially altering that concept
in any way
 Correlative subsumption
more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption,
since it enriches the higher-level concept

Example (Stage 2) :
• Now, let's suppose Ali encounter a new kind of tree
that has red leaves, rather than green

• Accommodate this new information Ali have to alter

or extend your concept of “tree’’ to include the
possibility of red leaves
 Superordinate learning
Example (Stage 3) :
• Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees
etc., but pupils still did not know, until they were taught
that these were all examples of deciduous trees

In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept,

but you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to
pupils.
 Combinatorial learning
Example (Stage 3) :
•Ali learn about modification on the plants part, Ali might
relate it to previously acquired knowledge of how papyrus
tree used to produce paper

• It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another

idea that is comes from his previous knowledge (in a different, but
related, "branch")
• Students could think of this as learning by analogy
 Principles
Principles of
of Ausubel's
Ausubel's
Meaningful
Meaningful Reception
Reception
Learning
Learning Theory
Theory within
within aa
classroom
classroom setting
setting

• General ideas of a subject (general statement):

– Must be presented first
– then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and
specificity.

• Instructional materials :
– should attempt to integrate new material with previously
presented information
– Using comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.
 Principles
Principles of
of Ausubel's
Ausubel's
Meaningful
Meaningful Reception
Reception
Learning
Learning Theory
Theory within
within aa
classroom
classroom setting
setting

• Advance organizers :
– Instructors should incorporate advance organizers when
teaching a new concept

• Examples :
– Instructors should use a number of examples and focus on
both similarities and differences.
 The most important
single factor influencing
learning is what the
learner already knows..
 Gagné’s Conditions of
Learning

What is learning?
• Gagné believed that an external observer could
recognize learning by noting behavioral changes that
remains persistent over time (Gagné, 1974)
• He also stated that maturation is not learning
because the individual does not receive stimulation
from the outside environment (Gagné, 1974).
• Learning has two parts, one that is external to the
learner and one that is internal (Gagné, Briggs, &
Wager, 1992).
Gagnè’s Conditions of Learning
Human
Human
learning
learning
generalize
generalize
ss to
to aa
variety
variety of of
situations.
situations.

Nature of
Human
Learning

Human
Human
learnin
learnin
gg is
is
cumula
cumula
tive.
tive.
Conditions of Learning
• Learning is an important causal factor in
development
• Human learning is cumulative
Learning of certain skills contributes to the learning of
more complex skills
• Human learning is both complex and diverse
• Learning is set of cognitive processes that
transforms the stimulation from the
environment into capabilities
 3) Events of learning operate
2)1)

on
Learning
Different
3)onEvents
what
required
learned
what
required
consti5tute
(The
learned
hierarchies
the learner
intellectual
2)consti
1)
Learning for
Different
thetute
learner
instruction

outcomes.
a nd
intellectual
for
in ways
of different
learning
hierarchies
the
a sequence
different
learning.
define

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t
Gagne’s Principle
Five Varieties of Learning
Verbal
Cognitive Information
Strategies

Intellectu
al Skills

Attitudes
Motor
Skills
The five varieties of Learning
Verbal ●
The capability to declare
Informati or state previously learned
material.
on

Intellect ●

●
Discrimination.
Concrete Concepts.
Defined Concepts.
Rules

ual Skills
●

●
Higher-order rules
The five varieties of Learning

Cognitive Employing personal ways to guide

●

learning, thinking, acting and

Strategies feeling. Organizing thoughts.

Motor Developing smoothness of

●

action, precision and

Skills timing.
The five varieties of Learning

●
Capabilities that influence
Attitud an individual’s choice
about the kinds of actions
to take.

es ●
E.g. Human model
behavior.
 Nine Instructional Events
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objectives (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
 CONSTRUCTIVISM:
KNOWLEDGE
CONTRUCTION/
CONCEPT LEARNING

Constructivism
- is a theory of learning based on the
idea that learner’s construct knowledge
for themselves.
 TWO VIEWS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
(COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM)
- it emphasizes individual, internal construction
of knowledge.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
- it emphasizes that knowledge exists in a social
context and is initially shared with others.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM
1. Learners construct understanding.
2. New learning depends on current understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic
learning tasks.
 ORGANIZING
KNOWLEDGE
People store knowledge in many
different ways.
CONCEPTS
- is a way of grouping or categorizing
objects or events in our mind.
 Concepts as feature lists
- involves learning specific features that characterize
positive instance of the concept.
DEFINING FEATURE- characteristics present in
all instances.
CORRELATIONAL FEATURE- is one that is present
in many positive instances but not essential for
concept membership.
Concepts as prototypes
prototype- is an idea or a visual image
of a “typical example”.

Concepts as exemplars
exemplars- represent a variety of
examples.
 SCHEMA
- is an organized body of knowledge about
something.

SCRIPT
- is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a specific activity
.
 What is transfer of learning?
• “Transfer of learning is about how teachers want their
students to apply the knowledge and the skills they learn in
class to other situation.”

Transfer of learning is about….

• When one recognizes a situation as something similar in a
way to what he has learned before, his tendency is to use the
knowledge and skills he has learned to this situation
 TRANSFER OF LEARNING

TYPES OF CONDITIONS AND

PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING LEARNING
• Happens when learning in one context or with
one set of materials affects performance in
another context or with other related materials.

• It is applying to another situation what was

previously learned.
• The circumstance of learning differs
significantly from situations when what is
learned is to be applied.

• The educational goals are not met until

transfer occurs. that's why transfer of learning
is a very important aspect of instruction..
• Positive transfer
occurs when learning in one context improves performance
in some other context.

• Negative transfer
Refers to transfer between very similar contexts. Also
referred to as specific transfer.

• Far transfer

• Refers to transfer between context that on appearance seem

remote and alien to one another. Also called as general
transfer
 These principles are based on the factors that
affect transfer of learning.
Conditions/ factors
affecting transfer of Principle of transfer Implication
learning
The more similar the two Involve students in learning
Similarity between two situations are, the greater situations and tasks that
learning situations the chances that learning are similar as possible to
from one situation will be the situations where they
transferred to other would apply the task
situation
Degree of meaningfulness/ Meaningful learning leads Remember to provide
relevance of learning to greater transfer than opportunities for learners
rote learning to link new material to
what they learned in the
past
Length of instructional The longer the time spent To ensure transfer, teach a
time in instruction, the greater few topics in depth rather
the probability of transfer than many topics tackled in
a shallow manner
Conditions/ factors affecting Principle of transfer Implication
transfer of learning

Variety of learning Exposure to many examples Illustrate new concepts and

experiences and opportunities for practice principles with a variety of
to encourage transfer examples. Plan activities that
allow your learners to
practice their newly learned
skills
Context for learner’s Transfer of learning is most Relate topic in one subject in
experiences likely to happen when one subject to topics in other
learners discover that what subjects or disciplines. Relate
they learned is applicable to it also to real life situation
various contexts
Focus on principles rather Principles transfer easier that Zero in on principles related
than task facts. to each topic together with
strategies based on those
principle s.
Emphasis on metacognition Student reflection improves Encourage students to take
transfer of learning responsibility for their own
learning and to reflect on
what they learned.
 MODULE 19
Facilitating Learning and
Bloom’s Taxonomy’s of
Objectives
Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Knowledge
• remembering
•Memorizing
•Recognizing
•Recalling identification and
•Recall of information
 Comprehension
• Interpreting
• Translating from one medium to another
• Describing in ones own words
• Organization and selection of facts and ideas
 Application
• Problem solving
• Applying information to produce some result
• Use of facts, rules and principles
 Analysis
• Subdividing something to show how it is put
together
• Finding the underlying structure of a
communication
• Identifying motives
• Separation of a whole into component parts
 Synthesis
• Creating a unique, original product that may
be in verbal form or may be a physical object
• Combination of ideas to form a new whole
 Evaluation
• Making value decisions about issues
• Resolving controversies or differences of
opinion
• Development of opinions, judgements or
decisions
 Effective Questioning Techniques

• Pose the question first, before asking a

student to respond.
• Allow plenty of “think time” by waiting at least
7-10 seconds before expecting students to
respond.
• Make sure you give all students the opportunity
to respond rather than relying on volunteers.
• Hold students accountable by expecting,
requiring, and facilitating their participation
and contributions.
• Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by
guiding students in the process of learning from
their mistakes
Torrance’s Creativity Framework

• “father of Creativity”
• “professor of emeritus” of
educational psychology
• The “Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking”
 • Many responses within a category

For example…
…typing
… styles

…typing
styles …typing
… styles

…typing
… styles
…typing
… styles
• Stretching or shifting the mind to generate a
variety of categories
For example…

…typing cases
…typing styles

…typing
…typing sizes
sizes
• Adding details for interest or clarity

For example…

What specific idea will make the

idea easier to understand or
more
 • Unique ideas that are relevant, but not
obvious
For example…
Beginning of “the greatest” tea = ?

Design a new ______ that is better than the one you

have
Creative Problem Solving

Osborn’s Checklist the origin of Classical

Brainstorming is the root of creative
problem solving (CPS).
• A basic rule of Brainstorming is build onto
ideas already suggested. Alex Osborn, the
originator of classical brainstorming, first
communicated this. A checklist was
formulated as a means of transforming an
existing idea into a new one. The checklist
is designed to have a flexible, trial and
error type of approach.
 The Checklist:
• Adapt? Is there anything else like this? What does this
tell you? Is the past comparable?
• Modify? Give it a new angle? Alter the colour, sound,
odour, meaning, motion, and shape?
• Magnify? Can anything be added, time, frequency,
height, length, strength? Can it be duplicated,
multiplied or exaggerated?
• Minify? Can anything be taken away? Made smaller?
Lowered? Shortened? Lightened? Omitted? Broken
up?
• Substitute? Different ingredients used? Other material?
Other processes? Other place? Other approach? Other
tone of voice? Someone else?
• Rearrange? Swap components? Alter the pattern,
sequence or layout? Change the pace or schedule?
Transpose cause and effect?
• Reverse? Opposites? Backwards? Reverse roles? Change
shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek? Transpose ‘+/-‘?
• Combine? Combine units, purposes, appeals or ideas? A
blend, alloy, or an ensemble?
 Classical Brainstorming
• Avoid criticising ideas / suspend judgement. All ideas are as
valid as each other
• Listen to other ideas, and try to piggy back on them to other
ideas.
• Free-wheeling. Don't censor any ideas, keep the meeting flow
going.
• Avoid any discussion of ideas or questions, as these stop the
flow of ideas.
• Generate ideas - either in an unstructured way (anyone can say
an idea at any time) or structure (going round the table,
allowing people to pass if they have no new ideas).
• Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are identical can be
combined, all others should be kept. It is useful to get a
consensus of which ideas should be looked at further or what
the next action and timescale is.
 The following, based on Van
Gundy (1988’s) description, is
a very brief skeleton of a
very rich process, showing it
in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form
• Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan,
search) for issues (concerns, challenges,
opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.
– Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’
(WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) – 
BRAINSTORMING to identify desirable outcomes, and
obstacles to be overcome.
– Convergent techniques include the identification of
hotspots ( Highlighting ), expressed as a list of IWWMs (‘In
What Ways Might…’), and selection in terms of ownership
criteria (e.g. problem-owner’s motivation and ability to
influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity,
stability).
• Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the
problem.
– Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why,
What, When, Where and How) and listing of wants,
sources and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a
series of question; for each, list possible sources of
answers; then follow these up and for each source, list
what you found.
– Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots
(Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify the
information gathered; and also restating the problem in
the light of your richer understanding of it.
• Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement
of the problem into a broad statement more suitable
for idea finding.
– Divergent techniques include asking ‘Why?’ etc. – the
repeatable questions and Five W's and H.
– Convergent techniques include Highlighting again,
reformulation of problem-statements to meet the criteria
that they contain only one problem and no criteria, and
selection of the most promising statement (but NB that
the mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the
participants can be as important as the actual statement
chosen).
• Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as
possible
– Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-
generating techniques. The general rules of 
Classic Brainstorming (such as deferring judgement) are
likely to under-pin all of these.
– Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping,
the combining of different ideas, and the short-listing of
the most promising handful, perhaps with some thought
for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-
restrictively.
• Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select
obvious evaluation criteria (using an
expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which
may include combining) the short-listed ideas from
Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these
criteria. Then opt for the best of these improved
ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).
• Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion
you have just selected be made up to standard and
put into practice? Shun negativity, and continue to
apply deferred judgement – problems are exposed to
be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans
are better developed in small groups of 2 – 3 rather
than in a large group (unless you particularly want
commitment by the whole group). Particularly for
‘people’ problems it is often worth developing
several alternative action plans.
 ro ble m S o lv i n g
Other model for P
• Branford’s IDEAL model
– Identify the Problem
– Define the problem
– Explore solutions
– Act on the strategies
– Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity
“Meaning and Types of
Motivation”
 Motivation
– is an inner drive that causes you to:
• do something
• persevere at something
• energizes you to do something
• initiate
• direct
• become intense
• persistence of behavior
“Indicator’s of a High Level of Motivation”

She/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks,

assignments and projects without being pushed by
his/her teachers and parents.

She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize.

She/he is convinced that accomplishing the things

she/he asked is to accomplish in class helps her/him
realize the goals she/he has set for herself/himself
and their dream in life.
 Indicator’s of a High Level of
Motivation”
She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of
immediate goals for the sake of more important
remote goals. An example is she/he is willing to
give up joining her/his barkada to watch a movie
in order to prepare thoroughly for final
examinations.

She/he persists and perseveres in her/his studies

even when things turn out to be difficult.

She/he does not give up easily.

In contrast, an unmotivated student:

• does not enjoy learning

• does not study unless pushed
• easily gives up
• lacks of perseverance
 “Types of Motivation”
• Intrinsic Motivation – the source of
motivation is from within the person
herself/himself or the activity itself.

• Example: A student reads pocketbooks

because it is enjoyable.
• Extrinsic Motivation – the source of
motivation is something outside
herself/himself or the rewards and
incentives.

• Example: A student studies because

she/he was told by her/his teacher or
because she/he is afraid to fail and her/his
parents makes her/him stop schooling.
“Type of Motivation which is
More Beneficial”

It is obviously that intrinsic motivation is

more beneficial because it comes from
within the person and it is not after the
incentives or rewards. It is shown in the
enjoyment of the activity itself and the
inner conviction of the learner that such
things are the right things to do in order
to realize a personal goal or a life dream.
“The Role of Extrinsic Motivation”

• Extrinsic Motivation factors include:

• Rewards
• Incentives
• Praises or words of encouragements
• Approval of significant others like
teachers, parents, peer group
Opposites:

• Punishment
• Withdrawal
• Privileges
• Censure
• Ostracism
We may begin employing extrinsic
motivation at the start but this
should fade away as the students
get intrinsically motivated
themselves. It plays a significant
role in the development of
motivated students.
“Theories on Factors
Affecting Motivation”
Factors Affecting Motivation

– these are the elements that

contributes to a particular result
that affects motivation.
 Attribution Theory
- explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors. For
instance, you attribute your popularity to your
popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. Or you attribute the
poor economic condition you are in to the Land
Reform of the Phil. Gov’t. (your lands were
subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your
father. These attributions differ from one
another in three ways – locus, stability, and
controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).
 Locus (“place”): Internal vs. external.

If your student traces his good grade to

his ability and to his work, he attributes
his good grade to internal factors. If your
student, however, claims that his good
grade is due to the effective teaching of
his teacher or to the adequate library
facilities, he attributes his good grades to
factors external to himself.
 Stability Stable vs. unstable.
If you attribute your poor eyesight to what
you have inherited from your parents, then
you are attributing the cause of your sickness
to something stable, something that cannot
change because it is in your genes. If you
attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then
you are claiming that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor, something that
can change. (You can prolong or shorten your
period of watching tv).
 Controllability: Controllable vs.
uncontrollable.

If your student claims his poor academic

performance is due to his teacher’s in-
effective teaching strategy, he attributes his
poor performance to a factor beyond his
control. If, however, your student admits that
his poor class performance is due to his poor
study habits and low motivation, he attributes
the event to factors which are very much
within his control.
Theories on Factors Affecting
Motivation
Attribution Theory
• Explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors.
3 Ways of Attribution from One Another

1) Locus “place”: Internal vs. external

2) Stability: Stable vs. unstable
3) Controllability: Controllable vs.
uncontrollable

How does attribution affect motivation?

Self-efficacy Theory
• Is the belief that one has the necessary
capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role
expectations,or meet a challenging situation
successfully.
Self-efficacy enhancing strategies:
• Make sure students master the basic skills
• Help them make noticeable progress on
difficult tasks
• Communicate confidence in students’ abilities
through both words and actions
• Expose them to successful peers
Self-determination and regulation theories

• Students are more likely to be intrinsically

motivated when they believe they can
determine their learning goals and regulate
their learning.
How to enhance students’ sense of self-
determination about school activities?
 Self Regulation

Applica
tion of
elf-
Self-Attentio
LearninPlannin
Goal
monitor
luati n
g gsetting
oning control
strategi
es
Choice Theory
• It is a biological theory that suggests we are
born with specific needs that we are
genetically instructed to satisfy.
 Four Basic Psychological Needs
Belongingoror
connecting
connecting
Belonging

Freedom
Freedom

Self

Fun
competence

Fun
competence
Power or
Power or
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
actualization

Self esteem

Love &
Belonging

Safety needs

Basic needs
Goal Theory
Learning Goal vs. Performance Goal
LEARNING GOAL
• A “desire to acquire additional knowledge or
master new skills.”
PERFORMANCE GOAL
• A “desire to look good and receive favorable
judgments from others or else look bad and
receive unfavorable judgments.
 Self-determined Goals
• When the lesson objectives are relevant to the
life of students, then students turn out to be
more motivated to learn.
 Goal Setting
Major Elements:
1. Goal acceptance
2. Specificity
3. Challenge
4. Performance monitoring
5. Performance feedback
Lesson Objectives must be:

S - smart
M - measurable
A - attainable
R - result-oriented
T - time-bound
• Students are more likely to be intrinsically
motivated when they are motivated towards
deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-
learning performance to get good grades.
Students’ diversity
in motivation
 What are the factors that
influences students motivation?
Students who, by themselves are already
as diverse, also differ in motivation.
These diversity in motivation may be
traced to differences in age,
developmental stage, gender, socio-
economic and cultural background.
 How these factors influences
student’s motivation?
 Our class is a conglomerate of students with
varying ages, and gender and cultural and
socioeconomic background.
Their motivational drives reflect the element
of the culture in which they grow up – family,
their friends, school, books and even church.
To motivate all of them for learning, it is best
to employ differentiated approaches.
As the adage goes . . .
“Different folks, different strokes”

meaning . . .
What is medicine for one may be
poison to others.
 There are two principles to consider
regarding social and cultural influences on
motivation.

1.Students are most likely to model the

behaviors they believe are relevant to their
situation.
2.Students develop greater efficacy for a task
when they see others like themselves
performing the task successfully.(Ormrod,
2004)
1. Students need models who are similar to
themselves in terms of race, cultural
background, socioeconomic status, gender,
and ( if applicable) disability.(Ormrod,2004.)
2. It must be good to expose our students to
models of their age and to models who come
from similar cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds.
 Do we have to limit ourselves to live
models?

Not necessarily. We can make our

students read biographies and
autobiographies of successful individuals
who were in situations similar to them.
 MODULE 24
Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation
The Classroom climate
Points to Ponder . . .
1.What is a classroom climate that
facilitates learning?
2. What takes place in a classroom
where a business-like and a non-
threatening atmosphere prevail?
What is a classroom?
It is a physical space where learning is
facilitated. It is a place where classes meet.

What is climate?
It is the prevailing influence or
environmental conditions characterizing a
group or period. It is synonymous to
atmosphere.
What is a classroom climate?

The classroom climate is more a product of

the interaction between and among teacher
and students than that of the physical
condition of the classroom.

The physical condition of the classroom may exert

an influence on the social interaction among
the personalities in class but it may not
contribute as much as the classroom social
interaction does.
 Going back to question number 1:

What then is the classroom

climate that is conducive for
learning?

- is one that is non-threatening yet

business-like.
 In answering question number 2:

What takes place in a classroom

where a business-like and a non-
threatening atmosphere prevail?
It is a classroom where:

• rules and procedure are discussed on the first

day of class;
• students are involved in the design of rules
and procedures;
• techniques to acknowledge and reinforce
acceptable behavior and provide negative
consequences are employed;
• clear limits for unacceptable behavior are
established;
• there is a healthy balance between
dominance and cooperation;
• the teacher is aware of the needs of
different types of students;
• the teacher is fully aware of the
happenings in class; and
• students’ responsibility for their own
behavior is enhanced.
 To summarize . . .
1. The classroom climate is a by-product of the
social interaction between and among
teacher and students.
2. The conducive classroom climate is one that
is business-like yet non-threatening.
3. It is a kind of classroom where:
a. expectations, rules and procedures, limits
on behavior are made from the very first day
of school;
b. the teacher, who is the leader, is fully
aware of what is happening and is in
control of the classroom and proceedings
and yet conveys the message that he/she is
interested in the concerns of the students
as an individual and the class as a whole;
c. students are responsible for their own
behavior.
The Physical Learning
Environment

A conducive physical learning

environment is one that:
 Allows maximum interaction between
teacher and student and among
students.
 Allows student movement without
unnecessary distraction.
 Allows teacher to survey the
whole class.
 It is safe, clean, orderly
 It is well-ventilated, spacious,
and adequately lighted
 It makes possible re-
arrangement of chairs as the
need arises.
 Assessment for Learning
ASSESSMENT is basically the
process of gathering information about
the students’ learning; then analyzing and
interpreting them for the purpose of
making decision.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT
1. Diagnosis
2. Placement
3. Effectiveness of the Program
4. Student Feedback
5. Research
Researched-Based Principle of
Assessment for Learning

Assessment for learning:

Assessment for learning should be
part of effective planning and learning
Focuses on how students learn.
Assessment for learning should focus
on how student learn.
Is central to classroom practice.
Assessment of learning should be
considered central to classroom practice.
 Is a key professional skill.
Assessment of learning should be
considered as a key professional skill
for teachers.
Is sensitive and constructive.
Assessment of learning must be
sensitive and constructive because
assessment has an emotional impact.
FOSTER MOTIVATION.
Assessment of learning should
consider the importance of learner
motivation.
Promotes understanding of goals and
criteria.
Assessment of learning should
promote commitment to learning goals
and a shared understanding of the
criteria by which they are assessed.
Helps learners to know to improve.
Assessment of learning should include
constructive guidance on how learners can
improve.
Develops the capacity for
self-assessment.
Assessment of learning develops
learners’ skills on self-assessment.
Recognizes all educational achievement.
Assessment of learning should
recognize the full range of achievement
of all learners.
 Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who
possess dignity and reputation with high moral values
as well as technical and professional competence. In
the practice of their noble profession, they strictly
adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and
moral principles, standard, and values.
 
Assessment for learning is more in line
Assessment for learning is more in line with with
Authentic
AuthenticAssessment.
Assessment.Sometimes
Sometimesreferred
referred
totoasasalternative
alternativeassessment,
assessment,authentic
authentic
assessment
assessmentseeksseekstotodirectly
directlyassess
assessstudent
student
performance
performancethrough
throughreal-life
real-lifetasks
tasksoror
products.
products.

Example:
Example:tasks
tasksand
andrubrics,
rubrics,and
andportfolios
portfolios
  
ARTICLE 1
Scope and Limitations

Section 2: This Code covers all public and private

school teachers in all educational institutions at the
preschool, primary, elementary, and secondary levels
whether academic, vocational, special, technical or
non-formal. The term “teacher” shall include
industrial art or vocational teachers and all other
persons performing supervisory and / or
administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid
levels, whether on full-time or part-time basis.
Purposes of Assessment
Diagnosis – used to determine any special learning
need that a learner may have

Placement – the learner can be placed in the best

learning environment where he can better learn ands
develop.

Effectiveness of the Program – can also provide data

about how a particular curriculum or program is
effective in meeting its goals

Student Feedback – used to communicate to the

learner his current level of performance, specifically his
strong and weak points.

Research – can also be used as a source of very useful

data in a wide range topics in the field of educational
research.
Researched-Based Principles of Assessment
for Learning

The group proposed 10 principles.

According to them, assessment for
learning:
 1. Is part of effective planning. There should be an
opportunity for both the learner and the teacher to use the
assessment of progress in looking at the learning goals.

2. Focuses on how students learn. The teacher should

understand the nature of learning.

3. Is central to classroom practice. Teachers would come

to realize that a lot of what they do inside the classroom can be seen
as a form of assessment.

4. Is a key professional skill. It is vital that teachers acquire the

necessary knowledge, skills and values about the entire assessment
process.
5. Is sensitive and constructive. As future teacher, bear in
mind that your comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner
you communicate them to students can affect their self-confidence.

6. Fosters motivation. Assessment should focus on progress

and achievement rather than failure.

7. Promotes understanding of goals and criteria.

Assessment of learning should promote commitment to learning
goals and a shared understanding of the criteria by which they are
assessed.

8. Helps learners know how to improve. Assessment of

learning should include constructive guidance on how learners can
improve.
 9. Develops the capacity for self-assessment.
Assessment should allow learners to apply metacognitive skills. In
this way, assessment empowers the student to take a more active
role in his own learning process.

10. Recognizes all educational achievement. Assessment

should be able to integrate the totality of the learner’s achievement.
DIVINE HEIDI G. CABIGUIN
BSE – E/ 3 – IRREG.

PROF. ANABELLA C. GOMEZ

EDUC 38 FACILITATOR

JANUARY 15, 2013