GENERAL PHYSICS

Length and time

CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
LENGTH MEASUREMENT
- Ruler

- Vernier caliper
LENGTH MEASUREMENT
- Micrometer screw gauge
VOLUME MEASUREMENT
- Measuring cylinder

36.5 cm3
TIME MEASUREMENT
- Analogue watch

- Digital stop watch

OBTAINING AVERAGES
-  Rather than measuring the thickness of a single sheet of paper, it is more accurate to
measure the thickness of 1000 sheets of paper and calculate the average:

- Rather than to calculate the time taken for a single pendulum swing, it is more
accurate to measure the time taken from 100 swings and average the results:
GENERAL PHYSICS
Motion
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Speed and velocity
- Speed is the change in distance per second

- Velocity is the change in displacement per second

Speed = 1000m / 2000s = 0.5m/s

Velocity = 0 / 2000 = 0 m/s
Acceleration
- Acceleration is the change in velocity per second (ms-2)

- Positive acceleration is when an object increases velocity over time

- Negative acceleration is when an object decreases velocity over time (deceleration)
Free fall
- Any object close to the earth’s surface will be pulled by the earth’s gravity (Fg)
- Gravity causes objects to free fall at a constant acceleration of 9.8ms-2
- Air resistance opposes gravity
- Eventually the downward force of gravity and the upward force of air resistance
will be the same
- Object will stop accelerating, and fall at a constant velocity (terminal velocity)
Distance-time graphs
- Distance time graphs plot distance
travelled against time
- Speed of travel can be calculated via the
gradient of the graph

Speed of travel between 0-6s

- The change in X axis = 10m 
- The change in Y axis = 6s 
- Gradient (speed) = 10/6 = 1.67 m/s
Speed-time graphs
- A speed-time graphs plots speed against time
- Distance traveled can be calculated via the area underneath
the graph
- Acceleration can be calculated by the gradient on the graph
GENERAL PHYSICS
Mass and weight
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Mass
- The amount of matter that makes up an object
- Measured in kilograms (Kg)
- All masses have inertia (resistance to change in motion)
- The larger the mass, the larger the inertia
Weight
- Force on a mass due to gravity
- Measured in newtons (N)

g (10ms-2), m (Kg), W (N)

GENERAL PHYSICS
Density
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Density formula
Or kg/m3) = mass (kg) / volume
(m3)
Density measurement – Liquid
- Put measuring cylinder on weighing scale and reset to
zero
- Pour liquid into measuring cylinder and measure volume
- Measure weight of liquid by reading off the weighing
scale
- Calculate density via mass / volume
??? KG
Density measurement – regular solid
- Measure dimensions of solid (height/width/length)
- Calculate volume of solid (height X width X length)

height
- Measure mass of solid with weighing scale
- Density = mass / volume Wid n gth
th l e

??? KG
Density measurement – Irregular solid
- Measure weight of solid via weighing scale
- Add water into measuring cylinder and measure initial volume
- Submerge solid into the water
- Measure the final volume of water in the cylinder
- Volume of solid = final volume – initial volume
- Density = mass / volume
??? KG
Final volume

Initial volume
Flotation / buoyancy
- Object will float if it is less dense than the liquid it is placed in
- Object will sink if it is more dense than the liquid it is placed in
GENERAL PHYSICS
Forces
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What are forces?
- A force is a push or pull that causes a change in speed, direction, or shape of an object
 Effects of forces on a spring
- When a load is hung off a spring, it causes a downward force on the spring
- The amount of extension will depend on the amount of force
- EXPERIMENT:
1. Measure original position of spring without any mass (L0)
2. Add 100g mass and measure the position of spring again (L1)
3. Calculate extension I.e. change in length L1 – L0
4. Then add another 100g mass (total=200g) and measure new length (L2)
5. calculate extension L2 – L0
6. Repeat the process until a total of 600g mass is added
Effects of forces on a spring
Mass (kg) Force (N) Length (cm) Extension
0 0 10 0
100 1000 20 10
200 2000 31 11
300 3000 41 10
400 4000 52 11
500 5000 60 8
600 6000 60 0
Extension load graph
- Hooke’s law: Extension directly proportional to
force applied until the limit of proportionality reached

- Further force causes non-proportional extension, but

original shape is still restored after removal of force
- After elastic limit, the original shape of the spring is
not restored even after the removal of force
- If force applied is too great, the spring may break
Force  Acceleration
- A net force on an object will cause acceleration

- Forces are vector quantities, and therefore act in a specific

direction
- The resultant force is the overall force when the size and
direction of all forces acting are taken into account
- Forces in the same direction are added
- Forces in opposite directions are subtracted
Centripetal force
- Centripetal force is the force that causes an object to
move in a circle
- The force always acts at a right angle to the direction
of movement of object
- Force constantly changes the direction of the object
without changing the speed
- Since velocity is a vector quantity, the velocity is
changing, and therefore the object is accelerating
- Centripetal force increases if:
1. The mass of the object increases
2. The speed of the object increases
3. The radius of the circle decreases
Friction and air resistance
- Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating
- It is the resistance that one object encounters when moving over another object
- Air resistance is a form of friction

- Air molecules will collide against free falling objects in the air, creating an upwards
force which opposes the downward force of gravity
Moments (turning effect)
- The moment of a force about a pivot is equal to force multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from the pivot

- When the clockwise moment > anticlockwise moment, the resultant moment = clockwise
- When the anticlockwise moment > clockwise moment, the resultant moment = anticlockwise
- An object is in equilibrium if there is no resultant moment i.e. clockwise moment =
anticlockwise moment
Examples
Centre of mass
- Centre of mass is the point on an object where the overall
mass can be considered to be concentrated, and hence where
the weight of the object is considered to act

- The center of mass of a plane lamina can be determined

with a simple experiment
1. Push pin through point anywhere on edge of lamina
2. Allow lamina to swing and eventually hang still
3. Mark a vertical line dowards
4. Take out pin and push through a second point
5. Again, let the lamina settle and mark a second vertical
line
6. The point of intersection between two lines = center of
mass
Stability
- The stability of an object is determined by its center of mass
- An object is stable if its weight (the force acting on center of mass) is inside the
base of the object
- An object will tip over if the weight falls outside the base of the object
Vectors and scalars
- Vector quantities have magnitude and direction
- Scalar quantities have magnitude only
- The resultant vector of two vector quantities can be calculated via scale diagrams

WHAT IS THE RESULTANT

VECTOR???
Scale diagrams
1. Choose a scale to draw on paper i.e. 1N = 1cm
2. Re-draw the diagram on paper with appropriate lengths and angles
3. Arrange forces nose-to-tail
4. Draw the resultant force in the direction of the arrows, and measure the length
5. Revert units back from cm into N i.e. 12cm = 12N
GENERAL PHYSICS
Momentum
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Momentum and impulse
- Moment is mass in motion, and any moving object will have momentum

- A change moment is impulse

- Momentum is always conserved

- Consider a collision between object 1 and object 2
- Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
GENERAL PHYSICS
Energy, work and
power
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Energy
- Energy is always conserved
- Energy is never created or destroyed, it is only
transferred or transformed from one form to another

EXAMPLES
1. Light bulb: Electrical energy  Heat + light
2. Water fall: Gravitational  Kinetic
3. Battery: Chemical  Electrical
Kinetic and gravitational potential energy
- Kinetic energy

-Gravitational potential energy

Energy resources
GENERAL PHYSICS
Energy, work and
power
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Energy
- Energy is always conserved
- It is never created or destroyed
- Rather, energy is transferred or
transformed from one form to another. 
Conservation of energy
- In a light bulb, electrical energy is transformed into heat energy and light energy 
- In a water fall, gravitational energy is transformed into kinetic energy 
- In a battery, chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy 
Kinetic energy
- Energy of a moving
object

Answer = C
Gravitational potential energy

Answer = A
Energy resources
GENERAL PHYSICS
Pressure
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Pressure
- Pressure is the force exerted per unit area
Mercury barometer
- Pressure beneath liquid surface (at
base of mercury column) can be
calculated
Manometer
THERMAL PHYSICS
Simple kinetic molecular
model
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States of matter
- Matter is any substance that occupies physical space.
- The kinetic theory of matter sates that matter is made of tiny particles in constant
motion 
States of matter
Temperature
- Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles within a substance

- Heating a substance causes particles to move quicker, therefore increasing their

kinetic energies, and hence increasing the temperature

- Heating can change the state of matter of a substance:

Brownian motion
- One day, a scientist was observing a pollen grain suspended in water.
- He realized that the pollen grain was actually moving in random motion
- Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid due to bombardment of
molecules of the fluid itself
Pressure of a gas
- Pressure of a gas is defined as a change of momentum of particles striking the walls
of the container, exerting force
Pressure of a gas
-Higher temperature (at constant volume)  Stronger collisions against container
wall  Exerts more force on container wall  Increases pressure

- Lower volume (at constant temperature)  Stronger & more frequent collisions
against container wall  Exerts more force on container wall  Increases pressure

Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas at a constant

temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the applied
pressure
 Evaporation
- Evaporation is the change from liquid to gas below the
boiling point
- Not all particles in a liquid have the same kinetic energy
- Some particles may be moving quicker (higher energy), and
some may be moving slower (lower energy)
- Remember: the AVERAGE kinetic energy = temperature
- Particles with a large amount of kinetic energy may
overcome attractive forces and escape the surface of the liquid
as a gas
- Since most energetic particles escape, it will lower the
temperature (average kinetic energy) of the liquid
- Factors that cause increased evaporation
1. Higher temperature
2. Larger surface area
3. More air flow over surface of the liquid
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal properties &
temperature
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Thermal expansion
- Solids, liquids, and gases expand when heating
- This is because particles gain more kinetic energy when heated, and therefore gain
more separation from neighboring particles
- The extent of expansion varies:
1. Solids expand the least
2. Liquids expand more than solids
3. Gases expand more than liquids
Thermal expansion of solids
- Railway tracks have a small gap to account for thermal expansion
- If there were no gaps, the expansion would cause misalignment problems

The rails in the above image are the result of the thermal These gaps give room for expansion during hot weather
expansion and lack of gap between the adjacent rails.
Thermal expansion of a liquid
- Thermal expansion of liquids are used in liquid-in-glass thermometers
- When thermometer placed in hot liquid, the alcohol or mercury expands
- This forces the liquid to move up the narrow tube
Thermal expansion of a gas
- When temperature of a gas is increased, particles gain more kinetic energy
- This means the gas will take up more space (volume) if allowed
Measurement of temperature
1. Physical property that varies with
temperature
-Thermal expansion
-Electrical resistance
-Potential difference

2. Two fixed points

3. Scale
Measurement of temperature: Fixed points
- To define a temperature scale, two reference temperatures called fixed points must
be used
- These are temperatures at which certain particular physical properties manifest
themselves i.e. freezing/boiling
- Celsius scale is defined by freezing point of water (0) and boiling point of water
(100)
 Types of thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometers  Thermocouple

- Liquid expansion
- Voltage differences
- Convenient to carry
- Large range and accuracy
- Limited range of temperatures 0-100
- Instant temperature readings
- Delayed temperature reading
Thermal definitions
Internal energy
• Energy contained within the system
• If an object is heated, since the particles gain more kinetic energy, the internal energy is increased

Thermal capacity
• Amount of energy required to change the temperature of an object by one unit (1°C)
• Thermal capacity is dependent on the material and mass of the object

Specific heat capacity

• Amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of an object per unit mass
• In other words, the energy required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of that material by 1°C
Specific heat capacity of water

We need:
- Mass of substance (m)
- Temperature change of substance (ΔT)
- Energy used to cause this temperature
change (E)
 Specific heat capacity of water
- 0.50 kg water is used into a container with insulation 
- A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of
the water
- An electrical heater with known power (50 W) is
placed in the water 
- Initial temperature reading is taken
- The heater is switched on and a timer is started
simultaneously 
- Timer is stopped when the temperature rises by
10°C 
Specific heat capacity of water
Energy supplied by heater (E) = power X time = 50W X 420s = 21 000J 
Mass of water (m) = 0.50 kg 
Change in temperature (ΔT) = 10°C 

C = 4200 J/(Kg°C)

In reality a lot of energy from the heater would not be transferred 100% to the water, so the value would
be a bit different from 4200. 
The concept of melting
- Solid  Liquid
- As solid is heated, temperature rises until
MP is met
- Once MP reached, solid will transition
into a liquid
- During transition phase, temperature is
constant
- Once solid has fully melted,
temperature of liquid rises again
- Latent heat of fusion is the energy
required to melt a solid at melting point
Concept of boiling
- Liquid  Gas
- As liquid heated, temperature of liquid rises until
BP is met
- Once BP reached, temperature stays constant as
liquid becomes a gas
- Once liquid has fully boiled into gas,
temperature of the gas begins to rise
- Latent heat of vaporization is the energy
required to vapourize a liquid at boiling point
Boiling vs evaporation
- Boiling and evaporation is a change in state from liquid  Solid
- Differences:
- Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature
- Evaporation can occur at all temperatures, including below the boiling point 
- Evaporation decreases the temperature of the remaining liquid.
- During boiling the temperature remains constant. 
Specific latent heat
- Specific latent heat of fusion
- Energy required to melt 1kg of solid at its melting point with no change in
temperature
- Specific latent heat of vapourization
- Energy required to vapourize 1kg of liquid at boilting point with no change in
temperature
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice
- Fill a funnel with ice and place a beaker beneath it
- Place a 50W heater in the ice
- Turn on the heater & start the timer immediately 
- After 10 minutes turn off the heater 
- Measure the mass of the accumulated water in the beaker 
Lets assume that we accumulated a total of 0.1L of water in 10
minutes (600 seconds)

•Energy supplied (E) = power X time = 50 X 600 = 30 000J

•Δm = 0.1L
•L = 30 000 / 0.1
= 300 000J/Kg
Specific latent heat of vaporization of
water
- Part fill a beaker with boiling water and place on a balance 
- Place a 50W heater in the water 
- Switch the heater and wait for water to boil 
- Once water is boiling start the timer and take the balance reading 
- When the mass reading has decreased by 0.1 kg, stop the timer 

Lets assume it took 4600 seconds to reduce the mass by 0.1Kg

•Energy supplied (E) = power X time = 50 X 4600 = 230 000

•Δm = 0.1L
•L = 230 000 / 0.1 = 2 300 000 J/Kg
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal processes
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Conduction –Good conductors
- Conduction is the process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through the material of a substance
- Occurs via molecular vibrations (transfer of kinetic energy through the structure)
- Metals are good conductors because of their structures:

- When one end of metal is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate quicker
- This causes neighboring particles to vibrate quicker and results in a domino effect across the structure
- Through the transfer of kinetic energy in the form of vibrations, heat is transferred from one end to the other
- Free electrons are highly mobile and rapidly quickens the transmission of energy
Metal conduction experiment
- Demonstration of copper being a good
conductor
- As copper bar is heated, the drawing pins
will fall off one (from the one closest to the
heat)
- This is because the metal conducts heat from
the hot end to the cold end
- Heat melts the wax and therefore drops the
pins
Conduction - Poor conductors
- Insulators are very poor conductors such as rubber
- Absence of free electrons makes the passage of vibrations/kinetic energy very
difficult
- Water is a poor conductor

- As the water at the top of boiling tube is heated, it

eventually boils
- However, the ice at the bottom does not melt
- Heat therefore does not reach the bottom of the tube
Convection
- Convection is a method of heat transfer strictly in liquids and gases
Radiation – Emission experiment
- Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum , and is emitted by any hot object
- Infra-red can be emitted, absorbed, or reflected
- Different types of surfaces can affect the emission and absorption of infra-red radiation

Set-up & procedure

•A metal cube with is painted with 4 different types of
surfaces: matt black, shiny black, white and silver 
•The cube is filled with boiling water 
•A heat detector is placed at a constant distance away from
the cube i.e. 50cm 
•The cube is rotated so that each side faces the heat
detector in turn, and the readings are noted 

Results (in order of emission levels)

•Matt black (highest) -> Shiny black -> White -> Silver
(lowest)
Radiation – Absorption experiment
Set-up & procedure
•A radiant heater is placed in the middle of two plates at equal distance
away from the heater 
•One plate is matt black and the other is silver 
•A thermometer is placed on each plate and initial reads of the
thermometers are recorded 
•The heater is switched on and the temperatures of each of the plates are
measured in equal intervals 

Results:
•The temperature of the matt black plate will increase quicker than the
silver 
•Matt black surfaces are therefore better absorbers of radiation
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Wave properties
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Waves
- Waves transfer energy from one place to another without the transfer of particles
themselves in the medium
- Particles vibrate in fixed positions
Types of waves
- Longitudinal waves
- Particles vibrate parallel to direction of wave
- Compressions (particles closest together) and
rarefactions (particles furthest apart)
- sound is longitudinal

- Transverse waves
- Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave
direction
- Peaks (particles highest from rest position)
and troughs (particles lowest from rest position)
 Important definitions
Wavelength is the distance between adjacent particles that are
at the same point in their vibration 
In a transverse wave, it is the distance between two adjacent
peaks or troughs 
In a longitudinal wave, it is the distance between two
adjacent compressions or rarefactions 
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of particles from
rest position
In transverse waves, it is the distance between the rest
position to the peak 
Velocity of the wave is the distance traveled per second, and is
measured in m/s 
Frequency of the wave is the number of complete waves
passing a point per second, and is measured in hertz (Hz)
Wavefronts are the locations of all particles of the medium in
the same state of vibration. It is perpendicular to wave
direction. The distance between one wavefront to the next is
the wavelength
Reflection, refraction and diffraction
REFLECTION
- When waves hit a plane surface, it will become reflected
- The frequency/speed/wavelength stays the same
- Using a ripple tank can demonstrate this
Reflection, refraction and diffraction
REFRACTION
- Speed of light changes when a wave travels from one medium to another medium
with a different density
- This causes the direction of the wave to change
- Water travels more slowly in shallow water compared to deep water:
Reflection, refraction and diffraction
DIFFRACTION
- Waves spread out when passing through a narrow gap or across the edge of an object
- As water passes the gap, it spreads out as follows:

- Extent of diffraction depends on size of gap compared to

wavelength
- Diffraction can also occur at edge of barrier
- Longer wavelength = greater diffraction
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Light
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Reflection of light
- Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal are all on the same plane
- Angles of incidence and reflection are measured in relation to the
normal
- Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Mirror reflection
- Mirrors reflect light coming from objects
which then enter our eyes
- Ray diagrams can demonstrate how an image
of an object is formed inside the mirror:
1. Trace 2 incident rays from object
2. Trace the reflected rays (remember: angle of
incident = angle of reflection)
3. Trace back the rays into the mirror
4. The point of intersection between two rays
behind the mirror is where the image is formed
Properties of mirror images
- Mirror images are virtual images
Virtual images are formed when light APPEARS to converge in a location which forms
an image
Real images are formed when light ACTUALLY convergences in a location which forms
an image
- Same size as the actual object
- Same distance away from the mirror as the actual object
- Laterally inverted
Real vs virtual image
Refraction of light
- Light travels at different speeds depending on the refractive index of the material
- Every material (medium) has a different refractive index
The higher the refractive index, the slower light travels
The lower the refractive index, the faster light travels
- Generally the denser the material the higher the refractive index
Refraction of light through mediums
- Consider light travelling from A to B
- There are two possible scenarios:
1. Refractive index of A is lower than refractive index of B
2. Refractive index of A is higher than refractive index of B

- Consider light going from air into glass, and then going back
out the other end
- Air has a lower refractive index than glass
- When light enters, it travels from low to high index
- When light leaves, it travels from high to low index

•i = angle of incidence 
•r = angle of refraction 
•Light slows down as it enters a higher index material, therefore
bends towards the normal 
•Light speeds up as it enters a lower index material, therefore
bends away from the normal 
The critical angle & total internal
reflection
- Consider light rays going from a medium of higher to
lower index
- Light bends away from the normal
- As angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction
increases as well
- If the angle of refraction is larger than 90, that means that
the entire light is reflected back into the medium (total
internal reflection)
- The critical angle is this limit – it is the angle of
incidence that causes an angle of refraction of 90
- When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical
angle, then we get total internal reflection
Total internal reflection in optical fibres
- Total internal reflection is used in optical fibres
- Optical fibre has a thin glass core with a outer
cladding with a lower refractive index
- Total internal reflection occurs for all rays that hit
the boundary between core and cladding at a angle
larger than the critical angle
Thin converging lens
- Light coming from a very distance object
are considered parallel rays
- When parallel rays pass a convex
(converging) lens, light rays are focused at
a single point called the principle focus
- The imaginary horizontal line at right
angles to the lens is the principle axis
- The distance from the lens center to the
principle focus is the focal length
Ray diagrams
- Light travels from an object, passes through a convex
lens, and forms an image
- It is your job to trace the light rays and determine the size
and position of the image
- All convex lenses will have a focal point (or principle
focus)
The focal point and focal length is the same on either
side of the lens
- The initial construction will look like this:

- Consider an object being placed on the left hand side

- There are three position positions for the object
1. 2F and beyond
2. Between 2F and F
3. between F and the lens

- The resulting image of the object will be different

depending on these positions!
Ray tracing: Object beyond 2F
- From the top of the object, draw three rays as
shown
- The point at which these three lines meet is where
the imagine is positioned
- This results in an image that is real, inverted, and
diminished
Ray tracing: Between 2F and F
- From the top of the object, draw three rays as
shown
- This results in an image that is real, inverted,
and magnified
Ray tracing: Between F and the lens

- The image is virtual, upright and magnified

White light and dispersion
- White light is a complex combination of all of the different
wavelengths of the visible spectrum
- Each of the wavelengths have a different colour i.e. green has
a wavelength of 500nm and red has a wavelength of 700nm
- Light of a single frequency is called monochromatic light
- Combining all monochromatic light results in ‘white light’
- We can separate out the different wavelengths by using a
prism
- This is called dispersion
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Electromagnetic spectrum
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 Summary of electromagnetic spectrum
- All electromagnetic waves can travel through
vacuum and all travel at the speed of 3 X 10 ^ 8
m/s in vacuum
- The higher the frequency, the higher the energy
of radiation
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Sound
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Production of sound
- Sound is a result of vibrating objects that cause a vibration of air
molecules
- Sound is a longitudinal wave (with compressions and rarefactions)
- We hear sound when sound waves reach our ear which causes
vibrations in our ear drums
- We hear frequencies of 20 Hz to 20KHz
- All waves (including sound) have a frequency and amplitude
1. Frequency (Hz) is the number of waves that passes a fixed
point her second
The higher the frequency the higher the pitch
2. The amplitude of the wave is the maximum displacement of
the vibration particles
The larger the amplitude, the louder the sound
Speed of sound
- Sound cannot travel through vacuum
- Sound must be transmitted through vibrations of particles within a medium
- The closer the particles are within the medium, the faster sound will travel

AIR = 330 m/s

WATER = 1500 m/s
METALS = 5000 m/s

- Air particles are very spread out, so sound does not travel very fast
- Metals on the other hand are usually solids, and particles are much closer together allowing quicker
transmission of sound waves
Determining of speed of sound in air
- Speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s
- We can experimentally proves this by using this set up:
1. Two microphones are separated by exactly 1m
2. They are connected to a digital timer that starts when it gets signal from mic 1 and stops when it gets a signal from mic 2
3. A hammer is used to hit a metal block to make sound

- The timer will record to travel between mic 1 to mic 2 the time taken from sound (i.e. 0.003 seconds)
- Since speed = distance / time
1m / 0.003 = 330 m/s
Echoes
- When sound waves get reflected off a surface, it generates an echo
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Simple phenomena of
magnetism
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MAGNETISM
• All magnets are made of ferromagnetic material (mainly iron/steel)
• All magnets have a north and south pole

• Ferromagnetic materials have smaller magnetic units called domains

Not a magnet / Magnet / Magnetized

Non-magnetized
Induced magnetism
• By placing a magnet near a piece of iron, the iron will become magnetized
• This is because the magnet will cause the iron domains to align themselves

 Iron loses magnetism very quickly therefore it is a temporary magnet

 Steel retains some of its magnetism so becomes a permanent magnet (until demagnetized)
Magnetic field lines
Electricity background – current
• Whilst electricity is the flow of electrons (from –ve to +ve)
• Current is the flow of positive charge (from +ve to –ve)
Magnetic field in a wire
• Current flowing through a straight wire will also produce a magnetic field
• A magnetic field around a coil of wire will produce a magnetic field that is
identical to a bar magnet
Right hand grip rule

N S
Magnetization
1.Stroking

2. Placing solenoid inside coil of wire with direct current

Methods of Demagnetization
1. Heating
2. Hammering

3. Using alternating current instead of direct current

Permanent vs electromagnets
 Permanent magnets are designed with hard magnetic material and used for purposes
where magnetism is needed over a long period of time i.e. fridge doors 
 Electromagnets use a solenoid to create a magnetic field. It is used for when a
magnetic field needs to be turned on and off i.e. scrap metal moving. 
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM

Electrical quantities
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS
 A conductor is something which allows electric current to flow through it freely
whereas an insulator prevents any electric current flowing through it. 
 Conductors have free flowing electrons which allow the passage of electric current
through the structure i.e. metals
Insulators have tightly bound electrons that are not free to move in the structure i.e.
rubber
ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field. The unit for charge is coulombs
 There are positive charges and negative charges. Opposite charges attract and like
charges repel.
ELECTRIC FIELD
 A region around an electric charge where another charge experiences a force is
called an electric field.
The field lines show the direction a  positive charge would move if placed in the
field.

POINT PARALLEL
CHARGE PLATE
CHARGING A BODY
 Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
 There are three main ways that we can charge a body: Friction, conduction,
induction
CHARGING BY FRICTION
 Different materials have different electron affinities (i.e.
love for electrons)
 When an object is rubbed over another object, the electrons
get transferred from one object to another due to friction. 
 The electrons will move from the material of lower
electron affinity to the material with higher electron affinity
 The object that loses electrons becomes positively charged
and the object that accepts electrons become negative
charged.
 This only works for insulators because the transferred
electrons cannot be redistributed
 In metals, the gained/lost electrons are immediately
redistributed to discharge the material
 CHARGING BY INDUCTION
 The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object
near to it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction.

A ground is simply a large object that serves as an almost infinite source of electrons or sink for
electrons. A ground contains such vast space that it is the ideal object to either receive electrons or
supply electrons to whatever object needs to get rid of them or receive them.
 CURRENT
• Current is the rate of flow of charge
Charge (C)

Current (A)
Time (s)

• In metals, current is due to the flow of electrons.

• The direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of electron flow.

Electrons flow from the negative to positive terminal.

Conventional current flows from the positive to negative terminal.  
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• An electrical supply (a power pack, cell or battery) provides electrical energy which
drives charge around a complete circuit
• The electromotive force (e.m.f) of a supply is the energy provided per coulomb of
charge and is measured in volts (V). 

Battery converts chemical energy into

electrical energy which is supplied to the
charge

• V = EMF 9V battery supplies 9J of energy per coulomb

of charge
• W = Work (energy)
• Q = charge in coulombs, C
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• The potential difference or voltage across a component in a circuit is the energy required per coulomb
of charge to drive the current through that component (i.e lamp).
• Or simply, it is the amount of electrical energy converted into other forms (i.e. light) per coulomb of
charge
• It is also measured in volts (V). 

Bulb converts electrical energy into light

energy

• V = Potential difference A 1V lamp converts 1J of electrical energy into light energy per coulomb
• W = Work (energy) of charge. It also means that 1J of energy per coulomb of charge is needed
• Q = charge in coulombs, C to drive current through the lamp.
 RESISTANCE
• The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow
of electric current
• Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)
• How to find the resistance of an unknown resistor

Unknown resistor

Voltmeter
Ammeter
RESISTANCE OF AN UNKNWON
RESISTOR
• The method before means that we are only working with one set of readings.
• If we wanted to increase accuracy, we would want multiple measurements of voltage
& current and therefore calculate resistance several times and average the results. 

• By changing the resistance of the variable resistor, the current and potential difference
across the unknown resistor will change too
• As you change the resistance of the variable resistor, calculate the resistance of the
unknown resistor at each step using R = V/I
• You should end up with multiple (similar) values for the resistance of the unknown
resistor
• Average the results

Known resistance that

can be altered
 RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
•The resistance of a wire can depend on two main things:
1. Length (of wire) 
2. Area (of wire) 
When the length of the wire is increased, the current must travel
further in the wire and thus resistance increases

When the cross-sectional area of the wire is increased (i.e.

larger wire diameter) the current has a greater area to travel
through so the resistance decreases. 
ELECTRICAL WORKING
• Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or power supply in a circuit to the
components in the circuit via the electrons.
•The components will covert the electrical energy into other forms (i.e. a lamp will
convert electrical energy into light energy).
• The rate at which the energy is transformed is the power. Power can be calculated
from the formula below. 
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM

Electrical circuits
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
SERIES VS PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuit forms a single path.  Parallel circuits have multiple

branching pathways for electrical
current
SERIES VS PARALLEL
Series Parallel
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS  
1. Transistor
2. Potentiometer
3. Relays
4. Diode
5. Input transducers
1. Thermistor
2. Light dependent resistor
TRANSISTOR
• A transistor is an electrically operated switch
• It has three terminals: the base, collector, and
emitter.
• When a small current enters the base, a larger
current can flow between the collector and emitter.
• The transistor therefore amplifies the current. 
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage
into a smaller one. Using just two series resistors and an input
voltage, we can create an output voltage that is a fraction of the
input.
POTENTIOMETER
• A potentiometer can give the circuit a certain level of control i.e. volume
control
• Fundamentally, a potentiometer can made from a variable resistor. 
• A variable resistor works by adjusting the path that current has to flow.
• Take a look at the diagram on the right
- Resistor length X+Y
- Wire can move up or down the resistor • Sliding wire up will INCREASE the resistance by
- Vout is the voltage across length Y of resistor INCREASING length Y which INCREASES the output
- Changing length of X and Y by sliding the wire will change the voltage. 
resistance of segment Y and therefore change Vout (i.e. V = I R)
• Sliding wire down will DECREASE the resistance by
• If this set up is connected to another component, for example an audio DECREASING length Y which DECREASES the output
unit, then the variation of output voltage can determine the volume of the voltage 
unit i.e. larger the output volume the larger the volume and vise versa. 
RELAYS
• A relay is an electrically operated switch.
• As electricity flows through the coil, it can
“energize” the relay and it turns the coil into
an electromagnet.
• The magnetic effect of this electromagnet
“attracts” the open switch on the right and closes it
to connect the circuit. 
• A small current through the left circuit can be used
to trigger the connection of the second circuit on
the right which has a much higher current flowing
through it.
DIODE
• A diode only allows one way flow of current through it (denoted by the arrow or
direction of the triangle in the circuit diagram). 
• This property of the diode is used in the conversion of a.c. current to d.c. current
(rectification) 

a.c. current – continuous change in d.c. current – single direction of current

direction of current
THERMISTORS
• A thermistor’s resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
• It can therefore be used as a temperature sensor. 
• The diagram below demonstrates a temperature sensitive circuit: 

• When the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor decreases.

• This means that it takes a smaller share of the potential difference from the power
supply whilst R1 takes a larger share.
Vout • The PD across the base (of transistor) is now large enough to switch on the
collector-emitter current.
• When a large current flows from the collector to the emitter, the bulb begins to
light. 

This circuit can be used to turn on a temperature warning light for electric devices such
as cookers, hair straighteners etc.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS
• The light dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases as light intensity
increases (similar to a thermistor). This means that it can be used as a light sensor. 
• The diagram below demonstrates a light sensitive circuit: 

• When the light intensity decreases, the resistance increases

allowing the LDR (B) to take a larger share of the PD form the
power supply.
• This also means that the resistor (A) takes a smaller share of the
PD.
• The PD across the base is now large enough for the base current to
switch on the collector-emitter current.
• When a large current flows from the collector to the emitter, the
bulb lights. 
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Logic gates & dangers of
electricity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Digital electronics
A digital system includes an input sensor and a processor
circuit, which controls the voltage to an output device. 
The processor circuit consists of a series of logic gates.
Logic gates respond to small voltages which are either on
or off. They do not respond to analogue signals. 
An analogue signal varies continuously in amplitude 
A digital signal has only two states: High or low (or on
and off, or 1 and 0) 
 Logic gates
Logic gates transform a digital input voltage into an output,
which depends on the type of logic gate.
The input voltages are given as 1 or 0 (on or off) and the
input/output of these logic gates can be represented on a
truth table. 
A NOT gate gives an output that is opposite of the input 
An AND gate only gives an output if the input A and B
are both 1 
An OR gate gives an output if input A or input B is 1 
NAND gives the exact opposite output as the AND gate
NOR gate gives the exact opposite output as the OR gate
Electrical hazards
Damaged insulation 
Electrocution can result in death
All electrical wires are therefore insulated
A damaged insulation can therefore be hazardous as it may result in an electricity leak. 
Overheating cables 
Overheating cables can result in the melting of the wire insulation and a consequent
fire. 
Damp conditions
The electrical resistance of the human body drastically decreases in damp/wet
conditions.
Wet conditions coupled with unsafe handling of electrical appliances may lead to
extremely large currents passing through the body
 Safety circuit components
Fuse 
A fuse is a thin piece of wire designed to carry a set maximum
electrical current
Current that is higher than the maximum will melt from the heat
When it melts, it breaks the circuit and thus stops the current
flowing.
Circuit breakers 
Prevents excessive current passing through the circuit
It is an automated switch which interrupts current flow when
abnormally high current is detected. 
A current in the coil will magnetize the iron core which attracts the
iron rocker.
The larger the current the stronger the magnetic pull
When the current becomes too high, the iron rocker will separate
from the contacts therefore breaking the circuit. 
Safety circuit components
Earthing metal cases
An electric shock can occur if a live wire inside an electrical appliance came loose and touched the metal casing
(which is of course a conductor).
To prevent this from happening, the earth terminal can be connected to the metal casing so that the electricity can
pass through the earth instead of the human body, and therefore avoiding electrocution.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electromagnetic
effects
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Electromagnetic induction

A conductor (such as a wire) moving across a magnetic field or a changing

magnetic field linking with a conductor can induce an e.m.f in the conductor. 
When a bar magnet is moved towards and away from a coil, it induces emf
within the coil.
Magnetic field lines of the magnet get ‘cut’ from the coil. 
Bar magnet moving towards the coil 
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved towards the coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the right, before returning to the centre. 
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines of the bar magnet.
This induces an emf across the coil which is measured by the voltmeter. 

 The emf across the coil causes a current to flow

 The current causes the coil to act like a bar magnet. 
 The direction of emf induced (and therefore the north/south pole of the coil)
will always oppose the movement of the bar magnet
 If the north pole of the bar magnet moves towards one end of the coil, a north
pole will be induced at that end
Bar magnet moving away from the coil
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved away from the coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the left, before returning to the centre. 
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines in the opposite direction
The induced emf will also be in the opposite direction

 The direction of emf induced (and therefore the north/south pole of

the coil) will always oppose the movement of the bar magnet
 If the north pole of the bar magnet away from one end of the coil, a south
pole will be induced at that end to oppose movement
Magnitude of induced EMF
The magnitude of e.m.f induced in the coil can be increased by: 
Moving the magnet faster 
Putting more turns in the coil 
Using a stronger magnet  
A.C. generator
The two types of current
A.C is alternating current, where the direction of current changes periodically
D.C. is direct current, which is unidirectional
The AC generator makes a.c. current using the fundamentals of electromagnetic
induction
A.C GENERATOR
2
1
Pay attention to
The coil with corners
A,B,C,D
Two slip rings which
are connected to an
external circuit
AB connected to slip
ring 2, DC connected
to slip ring 1
Rotating coil
A.C GENERATOR
•Magnetic field lines go from north pole to
south pole 
•As the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field
lines and induces emf and current 
•In diagram, side AB will cut the magnetic
field upwards and side CD cuts the magnetic
field downwards
•As the coil rotates, eventually AB will cut
the field downwards and CD will cut it
upwards
•Since the sides have now reversed, the
direction of induced current will also
become reversed when this happens
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE

M C

M
C
F

CDAB
DIRECTION OF INDUCED
CURRENT
2
1

C
D
B
A
C DAB BADC
 AC VOLTAGE AGAINST TIME
VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL
(coil moving)

VERTICAL
(coil moving)

VERTICAL
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer increases or decreases the voltage of an alternating current. 

•A step-down transformer produces an output voltage that is less than

the input voltage 
• Secondary coil has less turns than the primary coil

•A step-up transformer produces an output voltage that is greater than

the input voltage 
• Secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil

•A step-up transformer is use to step up voltage coming from power

stations onto powerlines that transmit electricity
• Power from power station is constant i.e. P = VI
• Higher the voltage (V) the lower the current (I)
• Lower current is good because less energy is lost as heat
TRANSOFMERS
FORCE ON A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
 DC MOTOR
The poles of the magnet are curved to provide a circular magnetic field.
This helps to keep the coil in a constant magnetic field. 
Each side of the coil experiences a force due to the fact that it is carrying
current within a magnetic field.
This force causes the coil to rotation (clockwise in this case). 

The split-ring communicator turns with the coil and is always in contact
with the brushes (which are fixed in place) to ensure that current
continues to flow to the coil. 
Each time the coil reaches a vertical position, the two sides of the
communicator swap brushes.
This reverses the flow of current to ensure that the force on each side
also become reversed. This allows the coil to continue spinning.

REMEMBER:
Conventional current direction is OPPOSITE to electron
direction
DC MOTOR
ATOMIC PHYSICS
The nuclear atom
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
The structure of an atom
- Elements are substances that are made of a single type of atom
- Every atom has a central nucleus containing smaller sub-atomic
particles called protons and neutrons
- Protons and neutrons make up most of the weight of the entire atom
Protons have a positive charge
Neutrons have no charge
- Electrons are much smaller (virtually weightless) particles that orbit
the nucleus
Electrons have a negative charge

- A neutral atom means that it has no net charge meaning the

number of protons (+) = number of electrons (-)
- By losing or gaining electrons, atoms can become charged –
charged atoms are called ions
- Proton number = number of protons
- Nucleon (mass) number = sum of protons + neutrons
 What makes an atom unique?
- There are currently 109 different atoms we know of
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc. are all examples of atoms
- A substance made entirely of just one type of atom is called
an element
- Every atom has a different number of protons in the nucleus
- This also means that each atom has a different number of
electrons (since neutron atoms have equal protons/electrons)
- Different atoms behave differently because of the
difference in proton/electron numbers
Isotopes
- Isotopes are variants of the same atom
- Isotopes have the same proton/electron number, but they have a different neutron number
- Isotopes therefore have the same proton number but different mass number

Mass numbers
Nuclear fission and fusion
- Two nuclei can interact by either fusing or breaking apart into smaller pieces
- Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light nuclei combine together and
realse vast amount of energy
- Nuclear fission is when an unstable heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei
Nuclide
- For any given atom:
- Proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus
- Nucleon number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons

The nuclide of an atom represents these values in the form of:

The discovery of the nucleus
- Small positive particles (alpha particles) were fired at a thin gold foil
- Pathway of particles after colliding with foil was observed and interpreted
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Radioactivity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Radioactive decay
- Radioactivity decay is a spontaneous transformation of an unstable atomic nucleus which releases radiation in the form of alpha
particles, beta particles, or gamma rays
- In alpha decay, alpha particles are emitted from the original nucleus
Each alpha particle is equal to a helium nucleus: 2 protons & 2 neutrons i.e. Z = 2 & A = 4

- In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron

- The electron is fired out of the nucleus whilst the proton remains
Neutron number therefore decreases by 1 & proton number increases by 1

- In gamma decay, the number of protons and neutrons are unchanged

- The gamma ray takes away some of the excess energy after the nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta particle
Characteristics of radioactive particles
- As mentioned above radioactive decay results in the
emission of three types of radiation alpha (α), beta(β) ,
and gamma (γ)
- These are ionizing radiations meaning it has the ability
to remove electrons from atoms that they collide with
(this is called ionizing effect)
- Once an atom loses an electron, there is a charge
imbalance i.e. more protons than electrons, causing the
atom to become an positively charged ion
Effect of electric fields
Effect of magnetic fields
Half life
- A sample of a radioactive material decays and the activity
decreases with time
- The activity is the number of radioactive particles emitted per
second
- As number of unstable nuclei decreases, the number of
emitted particles become reduced too
- It is different to assess when a sample of radioactive material
completely stops because the activity never really falls to zero
- But we can measure the half life instead
- The half life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for
half of the nuclei in the sample to dacay (or the time taken for
the activity of a sample to fall to half of the original value)
Safety precautions
- Ionizing radiation can kill or damage human cells
- This can cause DNA mutation that can eventually lead to cancer
- It is therefore important for people that are working with this sort of radiation to
keep safe from it
- Radiation workers wear film badges, which monitors the dose of radiation exposed
- This allows them to ensure that they are not exposed to levels that are unsafe
Detection of radioactivity
- G-M tube
GM tube detects ions produced when alpha, beta or gamma radiation enters the
tube
- It is attached to a counter that registers a count each time a radioactive particle is
detected

- Photographic film
- Photographic film is blackened by the presence of ionizing radiation
- The higher the number of radioactive particles, the blacker it becomes