INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

BEHAVIOR

Resoso, Leonardo Jr. Escojedo BSCriminology 22-H

LESSON 1: OVERVIEW OF
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
CHAPTER I
 What is Behavior?
• Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in
relation to its environment, which includes the other organism or systems
around as well as the physical environment.
• It is the response of the organism or system to various stimuli or inputs,
whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert,
and voluntary or involuntary.
 Kinds of Behavior
Overt or Covert Behavior– behavior that are outwardly manifested or those that are
directly observable are overt behavior. On the other hand, covert behaviors are
behavior that is hidden – not visible to the naked eye.
Conscious and Unconscious Behavior– behavior is conscious when acts are within
the level of awareness. It is unconscious when acts are embedded in ones
subconscious – unaware.
• Simple or Complex Behavior– these are acts categorized according to the number
of neurons involved in the process of behaving. Simple behavior involves less
number of neurons, a combination of simple behavior.
 Kinds of Behavior
Rational or Irrational Behavior– there is rational behavior when a person
acted with sanity or reason and there is irrational behavior when the person
acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man loses his
sanity and laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular.
• Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior – voluntary behavior is an act done
with full volition or will such as when we discriminate, decide or choose
while involuntary behavior refers the bodily processes that foes on even
when we are awake or asleep like respiration, circulate and digestion.
 Determinants of Behavior
The answer to these questions requires the study and understanding of the
influence of HEREDITY and ENVIRONMENT as cited by Tuason:
Heredity (Biological Factor) – this refers to the genetic influences, those
that are explained by heredity, the characteristics of a person acquired from
birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains that certain
emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and potentials and our
physical appearance are inherited.
Environmental Factor (Socio-Cultural Influences)

Family Background– it is a basic consideration because it is in the family

whereby an individual first experiences how to relate and interact with
another. The family is said to be the cradle of human personality as a result of
either a close or harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the
disturbed family, broken family, separated or maladjusted relations.
Pathogenic Family Structure– those families associated with high
frequency of problems such as:

The inadequate Family– characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary
problems of family living. It lacks the resources, physical or psychological, for meeting
the demands of family satisfaction.
The Anti-social Family– those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the
influence of parents to their children.
The Discordant/disturbed Family– characterized by non-satisfaction of one or both
parent from the relationship that may express feeling of frustration.
• The Disrupted Family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death,
divorce, separation or some other circumstances.
 Other Determinants of Behavior
In order to further understand and provide answers on the question that why do some
people behave criminally, it is important to study the other determinants of behavior. These
are the needs, drives and motivation.
Needs and Drives– needs according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement
for well-being of the individual. Drives therefore are an aroused state that results from some
biological needs.
Psychological Needs– are influenced primarily by the kind of society which the individual
raised. Psychological motives are those related to the individual happiness and well-being,
but not for the survival, unlike the biological motives that focuses of the basic needs – the
primary motives.
 Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs form a hierarchy from the most
basic biological requirements to the need for self-actualization – the highest of all
needs.
Biological or Psychological Needs– these motives include the need for food,
water, oxygen, activity and sleep.
Safety Needs– these pertains to the motives of being cared for and being secured
such as in income and place to live.
Love/Belongingness– belongingness is integration into various kinds of social
groups or social groups or social organizations. Love needs means needs for
affection.
Cognitive Needs- our motivation for learning and exploration.
Esteem Needs– our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect for a person as
a useful and honourable human being.
Aesthetic Needs– our motivation for beauty and order.
1. Self-actualization– pertains to human total satisfaction, when people are
motivated not so much by unmet needs, as by the desire to become all they are
capable of self-actualization.
Motivation– refers to the influences that govern the initiation,
direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. Thus motivation
refers to the causes and whysof behavior as required by a need.
 What is Human Behavior?
• It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person adopts in order to fit
societys idea or right or wrong. It is partly determined by heredity and
environment. It is also the way human beings act. Many people use the
word behavior to mean conduct. But in psychology and other behavioural
sciences, behavior is regarded as any activity of a person.
HUMAN BEHAVIOR is properly the subject matter of psychology.
Psychology defined as the science that studies behavior and mental
processes. The study of human behavior can be approached from several
viewpoints, to wit:

Neurological– emphasizes human actions in relation to events taking place inside the body,
especially the brain and nervous system.
Behavioural– focuses on those external activities of the organism that can be observed and
measured.
Cognitive- concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms information in various ways.
Psychoanalytical– emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from-repressed sexual and
aggressive impulses in childhood.
1. Humanistic– focuses on the subjects experience, freedom of choice and motivation toward self-
actualization.
 What is Human Development?

Human development is the process of a persons growth and maturation

throughout their lifespan, concerned with the creation of an environment
where the people are able to develop their full potential interests and needs.
Development is about the expansion of choices people have in order to lead
lives they value.
 Four Pillars of Human Development
Equity– it is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that
there must be fairness for all.
Sustainability– it encompasses the view that every person has the right to earn a living
that can sustain him or her, while everyone has the right to access to goods more evenly
distributed among the populations.
Production– it is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be
introduced by their governments.
• Empowerment– it is the view that people who are powerless, such as women, need
to be given power.
 THEORIES OF CHILD (HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT)
PERSONALITY THEORY
Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
ID – ID allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is
based on the pleasure principle i.e. it wants immediate satisfaction, with no
consideration for the reality of the situation. ID refers to the selfish,
primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability
to delay gratification.
EGO – as the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The
ego’s job is to meet the needs of the ID, while taking into account the constraints of
reality. The EGO acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt
us, so the ID must constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the
ID and SUPEREGO which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as
our “sense of time and place”.

SUPEREGO (Conscience of Man) – the superego develops during the phallic

stage as a result of the moral constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally
believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the ID.
Superego internalizes society and parental standards of “good and bad”, “right and
wrong”, behavior.
 Psychosexual Stages (Freud’s Model of
Personality Development)
Oral Stage (0-18 Months)
This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the mouth. Infant
gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infants enjoys the aggressive
pleasure of biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality
that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion.
Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years)
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes,
and the super-ego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too
lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is
disorganized, reckless and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his
parents, and may develop an anal retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate.
 Psychosexual Stages (Freud’s Model of
Personality Development)
Phallic Stage (3-6 Years)
Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation, that
is, on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex;
boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.
As a result, the boys develop masculine characteristics and repress his sexual feelings towards his mother.
This is known as:
a. Oedipus Complex – this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving relationship with
mother’s (mama’s boy).
b. Electra Complex – this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional attachment for their
fathers (daddy’s girl).
Note: The Oedipus Complex in named for the King Thebes who killed his father and married his mother.
 Psychosexual Stages (Freud’s Model of
Personality Development)
Latency Stage (6-11 Years)
Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the process of
sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles, playing house
and sports.
Genital Stage (11 Years on)
This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining
sexual pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to
orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interest in others also becomes a central motive.
 STAGE FOCUS

1. Oral (0-18 months) • Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing)

2. Anal (18-36 months) • Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination: coping with demands for control.

3. Phallic (3-6 years) • Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings.

4. Latency (6 years to puberty) • A phase of dormant sexual feelings.

5. Genital (puberty on) • Maturation of sexual interest.

Freud Psychosexual Theory believes that we are born with two basis instincts:

Eros – this is named after the Greek god of love. Eros includes the sex drives and drives such as
hunger and thirst.
Thanatos – this is named after Greek god of death. This includes not only striving for death but also
destructive motives such as hostility and aggression.
 THEORIES OF CHILD (HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT)
TRAIT THEORY Personality Trait by Eysenck
Trait approach identifies where a person
Extrovert – it refers that is sociable,
might lie along a continuum of various
personality characteristics. Trait theories out-going and active.
attempt to learn and explain the traits that
make up personality, the differences between Introvert – it refers to a person that is
people in terms of their personal withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
characteristics, and how they relate to actual Emotionally Unstable – it is trait that
behavior.
is being anxious, excitable, and easily
Trait refers to the characteristics of an disturbed.
individual, describing habitual way of behaving,
thinking and feeling.
 THEORIES OF CHILD (HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT)
STAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Cognitive Development Theory (Jean
Piaget) • The child learns by doing: looking, touching, and sucking. The
Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years) child also has a primitive understanding of cause-and-effect
relationships. Object performance appears 9 months.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development suggests that children • The child uses language and symbols including letters and
Preoperational ( 2 years – 7 numbers. Egocentrism is also evident. Conversation marks the
move through four different stages of years) end of the preoperational stage and the beginning of concrete
mental development. This theory operations.
focuses not only understanding how
• The child demonstrates conversation, reversibility, serial ordering
children acquire knowledge, but also Concrete Operational (7 years
and a mature understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.
– 11 years)
Thinking at this stage is still concrete.
on understanding the nature of
intelligence.
Formal Operational (12 years • The individual demonstrates abstract thinking, including logic,
and up) deductive reasoning, comparison and classification.
 THEORIES OF CHILD (HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT)
Socio-Cultural Theory

Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s work was largely
unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of
constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other
and the zone of proximal development.

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and
cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

This is known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological System theory states that human development is
influenced by the different types of environmental systems. This theory help us understand why we may
behave differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we
are in school or at work.
 The Five Environmental Systems
The ecological system theory holds that we encounter different
environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in
varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem,
the exosystem, the macro system and the chronosystem.
The Micro System – the micro system’s setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your
family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbours and other people who have a direct contact with you
are included in your micro system.
The Mesosystem – the mesosytem involves the relationships between involves the relationships
between the microsystems in one’s life. This means that your family experience may be related to your
school experience.
The Exosystem – the exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in
the person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a
child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several
months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s social relationship, or on the other
hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
The Macrosystem – the macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his world country. For
example, being born to a poor family makes a person work hard every day.
1. The Chronosystem – the chronosystem includes the transitions and shift in one’s lifespan. This
may also involve the socio-historical context that my influence a person.
 THEORIES OF CHILD (HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT)

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean
Piaget’s theory of moral reasoning. This theory made us understands that morality starts
from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors.
 Level of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Morality
The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages:
obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment – Obedience Orientation – related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this
stage includes the use of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to
obey the rules.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation – in this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of
an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, person steals money from
other person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Moral Development
Theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer.
 Level of Moral Development
Level 2: Conventional Morality
The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional
morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation – in this stage, a person judges an action based on the
societal roles and social expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal
relationship” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks
doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation – this stage includes respecting the authorities and following
the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this
stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the
offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.
 Level of Moral Development
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality
The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and 6. This is mainly concerned
with the universal principles that relation to the action done.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation – in this stage, the person is look at various opinions
and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the
action.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation – the final stage of moral reasoning, this
orientation is when person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgement
may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached
to his own principles of justice.
 Psychological Explanation for Human
Behavior
The mind and its relationship to crime – the way we think.
Psychiatric Approach – the field of medicine that specializes in the understanding, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of
mental problems is psychiatry.
Personality Theory – emotional conflict and personality deviation characterize many criminals, especially habitual offenders.
Intelligence and Crime – closely associated with the mental disorder approach linking of crime and intelligence. It is argued
that low intelligence causes crimes.
Cognitive Development Theory – this approach is based on the belief that the way in which people organized their thoughts
about rules and laws results in either criminal or non-criminal behavior.
Behaviour Theory – based on the belief that it is not unconscious that is important but, rather, behavioural can be observed and
manipulated.
1. Learning Theory - it acknowledges the individuals to have psychological mechanism that permit them to behave
aggressively, maybe accomplished by using other people as models.
 LESSON 2: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

What is Abnormal Behavior?

Abnormal behavior is something deviating from the normal or differing
from the typical, is subjectively defines behavioural characteristics, assigned
to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions. It may be abnormal when it is
unusual, socially unaccepted, self-defeating, dangerous, or suggestive of
faulty interpretation of reality or of personal distress.
 What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorder, including efforts to understand their
genetic, biological, psychological, and social causes; effective classification schemes; course
across all stages of development; manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the origin of
mental disorders, how they develop, and the symptoms they might produce.
The 4D’s
A description of the four D’s when defining abnormality:
Deviance – this term describes that specific thought, behavior and emotions are considered deviant
when they are unacceptable or not common in society.
Distress – this term accounts negative feelings for an individual with disorder. He or she may feel
deeply troubled and affected by their illness.
Dysfunction – this term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s ability to perform
normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning.
1. Danger – this term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed at the individual, or others in
the environment. An example of dangerous behavior that may suggest a psychological disorder is
engaging in suicidal activity.
 Identification of Abnormal Behavior

1. Deviation from Statistical Norm

The word abnormal means “away from norm”, but according to this definition, a person who is
extremely intelligent should be classified as abnormal. Examples are:
Intelligence – it is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on an IQ test or to get a
score below 55, but only the lowest score is considered abnormal.
• Anxiety – a person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone who
almost never feels anxiety are all considered to be abnormal.

2. Deviation from Social Norm

Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that
standard is considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and
vary from one society to another.
3. Maladaptive Behavior
Maladaptive behavior is the effect of a well-being of the individual and or the social group. That some
kind of deviant behavior interferes with the welfare of the individual such as a man who fears crowd
can’t ride a bus. This means that a person cannot adopt himself with the situation where in it is
beneficial to him.

Maladaptive to One’s self – it refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or to adapt the demands
of life.
• Maladaptive to Society – it refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social group functioning.

4. Personal Distress
This is abnormally in terms of the individual subjective feelings of distress rather than the individual
behavior. This includes mental illness, feeling of miserably, depression, and loss of appetite or interest,
suffering from insomnia and numerous aches and pains.

5. Failure to Function Adequately

Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of
everyday life. They may unable to perform the behavior necessary for day-to-day living e.g. self-care, hold
down a job, interact meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.
 Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior
Long Periods of Discomfort – this could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test or grieving the
death of a loved one. This distress is related to a real related or threatened event and passes with time. When such
distressing feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding
the person, they would consider abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder.
Impaired Functioning – a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of inefficiency and prolonged
inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person consistently fails in his classes or
someone who constantly changes his jobs for no apparent reason.
Bizarre Behavior – this behavior has no rational basis seems to indicate that the individual is confused. They
psychoses frequently results hallucinations or delusions.
1. Disruptive Behavior – this behavior means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the
lives of other or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic
of a severe psychological disorder.
 LESSON 3: MENTAL DISORDER
What is a Mental Disorder?
Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning. A mental
behavior, also called a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioural or mental pattern that
causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.

What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder?

It is known as the DSM-IV; the manual is published by the American Psychiatric
Association and covers all mental health disorder for both children and adults. It also lists
known causes of these disorders, statistics in terms of gender, age, at onset, and prognosis as
well as some research concerning the optimal treatment approaches.
What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)?
APA is a medical specialty society with over 35,000 US and international member physicians
who “work together to ensure humane care and effective treatment for all persons with mental
disorder, including mental retardation and substances-related disorder. It is the voice and
conscience of modern psychiatry. Its vision is a society that has available, accessible quality
psychiatric diagnosis and treatment”.

What is Mental Retardation (MR)?

MR is condition of limited ability in which an individual has low Intelligence Quotient (IQ),
usually below 70 on traditional intelligence test, has difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she
exhibited these characteristics during the so-called developmental period – by age 18.
 Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

Mild Mental Retardation – approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly
retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50-70, and they can often acquire academic skills up
to about the sixth-grade level.
Moderate Mental Retardation – about 10% of the mentally retarded population is considered
moderately retarded population is considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded persons
have IQ scores ranging 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care task with moderate
supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and
function environment within the community in such supervised environments as group homes.
Severe Mental Retardation – about 3-4 of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded.
Severely retarded persons have IQ scores of 20-40. They may master very basic self-care skills and
some communication skills. Many severely retarded individual are able to live in group home.
1. Profound Mental Retardation – only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as
profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-24. They may be
able to develop basic self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and training.
Profoundly retarded people need a high level of structure and supervision.
LESSON 4: CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR AND INTELLIGENCE

What is Criminal Behavior?

Criminal Behavior refers to a behavior which is criminal in nature; a
behavior which violates a law. Thus, the moment a person violates the law,
he had already committed criminal behavior. Criminal behavior refers to
conduct of an offender that leads to and including the commission of an
unlawful act.
 Origins of Criminal Behavior
1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies those criminal acts are unavoidable, investable consequences of the bad seed or
bad blood. The following are some studies and theories related to biological causes of crime.
Born Criminal (Cesare Lombroso)
Pysique and Somatotype (Kretschmer & William Sheldon)
• Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)

• 2. Personality Disorder Factor

• Personality disorder factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of disregard for and
violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into
adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality Disorder.
3. Learning Factor
Learning factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or listening to
people around us. The following are related learning theories, to wit;

Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)

Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde)
• Identification Theory (Daniel Classer)

4. Biological Approach
Biological approach points to inherited predispositions and physiological processes to explain
individual differences in personality. It is a perspective that emphasizes the role of biological
processes and heredity as the key to understanding behavior.

5. Humanistic Approach
Humanistic approach identifies personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the
key causes of differences in personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have involved
and adapted behaviors required for survival against various environmental pressures over the
long course of evolution.
6. Behavioral/Social Learning Approach
Behavioral/Social Learning approach explains consistent behavior patterns as the result of
conditioning and expectations. This emphasizes the role of environment in shaping behavior.

Behavioral Personality Theory – it is a model of personality that emphasizes learning and

observable behavior.
Social Learning Theory – it is an explanation of personality that combines learning principles,
cognition, and effects of social relationships.
Self-reinforcement – this is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular
response.
• Identification – it is a feeling from which one is emotionally connected to a person and a
way of seeing oneself as himself or herself. The child admires adults who love and care for
him/her and this encourages imitation.

7. Cognitive Approach
Cognitive approach looks at differences in the way people process information to explain
differences in behavior. This perspective emphasizes the role of mental processes that underlie
behavior.
 Intelligence and Criminality

What is Human Intelligence?

Human intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics.
First intelligence is best understood as compilation of brain-based
cognitive abilities. Intelligence reflects “a very general mental capability
that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve
problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and
learn from experience.
 Criminal Law and Intelligence
McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule?

An English court maintained that a man was not responsible for an act if “he does not know what he is doing, no
more…a wild beast”. Modern standard of legal responsibility, however, have been based on the McNaughton decision
of 1843.

The McNaughton Rule requires that a criminal defendant (a) not know what he was doing at the time or (b) not
know that his actions were wrong.

What is Durham Rule?

The Durham rule states that, “an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act is the product of mental
disease or mental defect”. Some states added their statutes this doctrine which is also known as “irresistible impulse”
recognizing some ill individuals may respond correctly but may be unable to control their behavior. This rule requires
that a defendant (a) lacks the ability to understand the meaning of their act or (b) cannot control their impulses.
 HUMAN BEBAVIOR AND
COPING/DEFENSE MECHANICS
CHAPTER II
 LESSON 1: EMOTION
Emotion refers to feelings affective response as a result of physiological
arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective evaluation and bodily expression. It is a
state characterized by facial expressions, gestures posture and subjective
feelings.
Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition.
The English word emotion is deprived form the French word émouvoir. This is
based on the Lating emovere, where e – (variant of ex -) means ‘out’ and
movere means move. This related term motivation is also derived from movere.
 Theories of Emotion
1. James-Lange Theory
James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment: emotion occurs after
physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. James further claims that
“we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry or fearful, as the case may be.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory
This suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion and physiological reactions occur
simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc. The theory was formulated following the introduction of
the James-Lange theory of Emotion is in the late 1800’s which alternately suggest that emotion is the result of one’s perception of their
reaction, or “bodily change.”
3. Two Factor Theory
This theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited that emotion is the cognitive interpretation of a physiological response.
For many, this remains the best formulation of emotion. Most people consider this to be the “common sense” theory to explain physiological
changes: their physiology changes as a result of their emotion.
 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is the area of cognitive ability that facilitates
interpersonal behavior. Emotional Intelligence is the capacity to understand
and manage emotion; however, the content and boundaries of this construct
remains unsettled.
 5 Component of Emotional Intelligence
Self-awareness – a person has a healthy sense of emotional intelligence self-awareness if they understand their
own strengths and weaknesses, as well as how their actions affect others. A person with emotional self-awareness
is usually receptive to and able to learn from, constructive criticism more than one who doesn’t have emotional
self-awareness.
Self-regulation - a person with a high emotional intelligence has the ability to exercise restraint and control when
expressing their emotions.
Motivation people with high emotional intelligence are self-motivated, resilient, and driven by an inner ambition
rather than being influenced by outside forces such as money or prestige.
Empathy – an empathetic person has compassion and is able to connect with other people on an emotional level
helping them respond genuinely to other people’s concerns.
1. Social Skills – people who are emotionally intelligent are able to build trust with people, and are able to
quick gain respect from the people they meet.
 LESSON 2: CONFLICT
Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must
choose between incompatible or contradictory alternatives. It is a
negative emotional state caused by an inability to choose between
two or more incompatible goals or impulse. Conflict is the state
in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they
interfere with one another.
 Types of Conflict
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict)
Psychological conflict could be going on inside the person and no one would know.
2. Social Conflict
The different kinds of social conflict are:
Interpersonal Conflict
Two individuals me against you;
Inter-group Struggles – us against them, them against me;
• Intra-group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a task
• 3. Approach-avoidance Conflict
• Conflict can described as having features of approach-avoidance: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-
avoidance. Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do not want.
 Kinds of Approach-Avoidance
Approach-approach Conflict – the individual must choose between two positive goals of
approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are wanted but only one option should be
chosen.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – this conflict involves obvious sources of stress. The individual
must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict – this conflict exist when there is an attractive and unattractive part
to both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative outcome as well.
• Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – this refers to conflict with complex combinations of
approach and avoidance conflict. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that
contain both positive and negative consequences.
Functional vs Dysfunctional Conflict

Dysfunctional Conflict – there is dysfunctional conflict if conflict disrupts, hinders job

performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning.
• Functional Conflict – there is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative
aiding in creativity and viability.
•
• Crime and Conflict
•
• Criminal behavior as an indicator of conflict within the person, emphasizing either:
• Failure to resolve tensions generated in the course of interaction between the organism and
human figures in its environment;
• Tensions generated by person’s inability to satisfy the contradictory expectations of others, or
else to mobilize the resources needed
 LESSON 3: Depression
Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much
of the time. It is different from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low
energy. Anyone can have depression. It often runs in families. But it can also
happen to someone who doesn’t have a family history of depression. You
can have depression one time or many times.
 Different Forms of Depression
Major Depressive Disorder – this is also called major depression. It is characterized by a combination of symptoms that
interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy once-pleasurable activities. Major depression is disabling
and prevents a person frim functioning normally.
Dysthymic Disorder – also known as Dysthymia. The symptoms do not occur for more than two months at a time. Generally,
this type of depression is described as having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than Major Depression.
Manifested nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two or more of the following:
Decrease or increase in eating.
Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping.
Low energy or fatigue
Low self-esteem
Difficulty concentrating or making decisions and
• Feeling hopeless.
Psychotic Depression – this occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some form
of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations, and delusions.

Postpartum Depression – this is a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby. A new
mother develops a major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is estimated that 10
to 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression after giving birth. In rare cases, a woman
may have a severe form of depression called postpartum psychosis. She may act strangely, see or
hear things that aren’t there, and be a danger to herself and her baby.

Seasonal Affective Depression (SAD) – this is characterized by the onset of a depressive illness
during the winter months when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts during
spring and summer. SAD may be effectively treated with light therapy, but nearly half of those with
SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and psychotherapy can reduce
SAD symptoms either alone or in combination with light therapy.
Bipolar Disorder – this called manic-depressive illness is not as common as major depression or
dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes from extreme highs to
extreme lows.

Endogenous Depression – endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is
defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason.

Situational Depression or Reactive Depression – this is also known as Adjustment Disorder with
Depressed Mood. Depressive symptoms develop in response to specific stressful situation or event.
Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning and do not meet the
criteria for major depressive disorder.

Agitated Depression – this kind of major depressive disorder is characterized by agitation such as
physical and emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of many
depressed individuals who have low energy and feel slowed down physically and mentally
inappropriate social behavior.
How to Battle Depression?

Socializing – eating out, movies, ballgames with family or

friends.
Helping each other in need – volunteer work, feeding the
homeless, etc.
• Praying – works for all moods, especially depression.
 LESSON 4: Stress
Stress refers to the consequences of the failure of an organism, human or
animal – to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether
actual or imagined. Stress is a form of Middle English destresse, derived via
Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw tight. The term stress was first
employed in a biological context by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in the
1930s. Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an
individual’s ability to cope.
What is Stressor?
Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress
(negative or positive). For example, getting a promotion is a positive event,
but may also produce great deal of stress with all the new responsibilities,
work load, etc.
 Two Types of Stress
1. Eustress (Positive) – eustress is a word Receiving a promotion or raise at work.
consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from
Starting a new job
the Greek eu meaning either well or good. When
attached to the word stress, it literally means Marriage
good stress.
Buying a home
It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling
of fulfilment or other positive feelings. Eustress Having a child
is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress
Moving
that enhances function is considered eustress.
Example of positive personal stressors includes: Taking a vacation

Holiday seasons

Retiring and
• Taking educational classes or learning a new hobby.
 Two Types of Stress
2. Distress (Negative) – distress is known Ineffectiveness at task.
as the negative stress. Persistent stress that Self-defeating behavior
is not resolved thorough coping or Transitional suicidal behavior
adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to
Anxiety and fear
anxiety or withdrawal (depression)
behavior. Effects of distress are: Loss of interest and initiative
Poor decision – making
Dangerous action
Accidents, and
• Apathy and cynicism
 Three Stages of Stress
Alarm - alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the
body’s stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage adrenaline will be produced in
order to bring about fight-or-fight response.
Resistance – resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to
attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the
strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its
resources are gradually depleted.
1. Exhaustion – exhaustion is the third and final stage in GAS model. At this point, all of
the body’s resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal
function.
 Types and Categories of Stress
Acute Stress – is what most people identify as stress. It makes itself felt through tension,
headaches, emotional upsets, gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation and pressure.
Episodic Stress – stress is more serious and can lead to migraines, hypertensions, stroke, heart
attack, anxiety, depression, and serious gastrointestinal distress.
Chronic Stress – is the most serious of all. It’s the stress that never ends. It grinds us down until
our resistance is gone. Serious systemic illness such as diabetes, decreased immune-competence,
perhaps cancer is its hallmark.
1. Traumatic Stress – is the result of massive acute stress, the effects of which can reverberate
through our systems for years. Posttraumatic stress disorder is treatable and reversible and
usually requires professional aid.
 Types of Short Term Stress
Acute Time – acute time refers to limited stresses that come on suddenly
and are over relatively quickly. Situations like public speaking and doing
math in your head fall into this category.
1. Brief Naturalistic Stress – brief naturalistic stress is relatively short in
duration. Think of a classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses
that rise out of other things and are over quickly.
 Types of Long Term Stress
Stressful Event Sequences – stressful event sequences stress is a single event that starts from
a chain of challenging situations. For example, losing a job or surviving a natural disaster.
Chronic Stress – chronic stress lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people to assume
new roles or change their self-perception. Think of a refugee leaving their native country or
an injury leading to permanent disability. These life-changing events – you rarely get to go
back to way things were.
1. Distant Stress – distant stress may have been initiated in the past (like childhood abuse
or trauma resulting from combat experiences) but continue to affect the immune system.
Distant stressors have long-lasting effects on emotional and mental health.
 LESSON 5: Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented
from reaching a goal. Frustration is an unpleasant state of tension and
heightened sympathetic activity, resulting from blocked goal. Frustration is
associated with motivations since we won’t be frustrated if we were not
motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be external or personal.
What is External Frustration?
External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly
perceivable conditions that impedes progress toward a
goal.
What is Internal/Personal Frustration?
Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristic that impedes progress
towards a goal. The sources of frustration are follows;

Physical Obstacles such as drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc., that prevents a person from doing his
plans or fulfilling his wishes.
Social Circumstances such as obstacles through the restrictions imposed by other people and customs
and laws of social beings.
Personal Shortcomings such as handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or paralysis.
1. Conflicts between Motives such as wanting to leave college for a year to try painting, but also
wanting to please one’s parents by remaining in school.
 Common Responses to Frustration
Aggression – to refer to any response made with the internal harming some person or
objects. The intentional infliction may be a physical or psychological harm.
Displaced Aggression – it refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than
the actual source of one’s frustration.
Scapegoating – it refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions
not of their making.
1. Escape – it is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by
psychologically withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending not to care) or
illegal drug use.
What is Frustration induced Criminality?

Frustration induced criminality is the idea that when our behavior is

directed at a specific goal and is blocked, arousal increases and the
individual experiences a need to reduce it. Individuals “who employ
violence to reduce this frustration will, under extreme frustration, become
more vigorous that usual, possibly even resorting to murder and other
violent actions”.
LESSON 6: Coping Mechanism vs Defense
Mechanism
Coping Mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with
minor to major stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious
ones, other are learned behavior, and still others are skills that individual
consciously master in order to reduce stress or other intense emotions like
depression. Not all ways of coping are equally beneficial, and some can
actually be very detrimental.
Defense Mechanisms refer to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration.
These are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by various
entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image. Healthy persons
normally use different defense throughout life. According to Freud, defense
mechanisms are methods that ego used to avoid recognizing ideas or
emotions that may cause personal anxiety; it is unrealistic strategies used by
the ego to discharged tension.
The following is the list of Coping Mechanisms:

Acting Out – this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the Super Ego and
yet desired by the ID. A person who is acting out desires may do it in spite of his/her conscience
or may do with relatively little thought. Thus, the act may be being deliberately bad or may be
thoughtless wrongdoing.
Aim Inhibition – sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe or realize that we are
unable to achieve. In aim inhibitions, we lower our sights, reducing our goal to something that
we believe is actually more possible or realistic.
Altruism – avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of others. Maybe you can heal
yourself and feel good by healing them and helping them to feel good.
• Attack – ‘The best form of defense is attack’ is a common saying and is a common saying
and is also a common action, and when we feel threatened or attacked (even
psychologically), we will attack back. When a person feels stressed in some way, he/se may
lash out at whoever is in the way whether the other person is a real cause or not. He/she may
also attack inanimate objects.
Avoidance – in avoidance, we simply find ways of avoiding having to face uncomfortable
situations, things or activities. This discomfort, for example, may come from unconscious
sexual or aggressive impulses.
Compartmentalization – it is a ‘divide and conquer’ process for separating thoughts that will
conflict with one another. This may happen when there are different beliefs or even when there
are conflicting values.
Compensation – where a person has a weakness in one area, they may compensate by
accentuating or building strengths in another area. Thus, when they are faced with their
weakness, they can say ‘ah, but I am good at….’, and hence feel reasonably good about the
situation.
• Conversion – conversion occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical
symptoms. The symptoms may well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a
communication about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, blindness,
and deafness, becoming mute or having a seizure. Lesser symptoms include tiredness,
headaches and twitches.
Denial – denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. The person
affected simply acts as if nothing has happened, behaving in ways those other may see as
bizzare.
Displacement – it refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target is
not permitted or not available.
Dissociation – dissociation involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main
area of conscious mind, in order to avoid the conflict that this would cause. This can also appear
as taking an objective, third-person perspective, where you ‘go to the balcony’ and look down
on the situation in order to remove emotion from your perspective (this is sometimes called
dissociation of affect).
Emotionality – when we become stressed or tension is caused, a number of negative emotions
may start to build, including anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When we display these
emotions, it can affect others around us arousing similar or polar feelings.
• Fantasy or Day Dreaming – when we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we
channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings. Fantasy also provides
temporary relief from the general stresses of everyday living.
Fight-or-Fight Reaction – when we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies get ready
either for a fight to fight to the death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly
superior adversary. It also happens when a creative new idea makes us feel uncertain about things
of which we previously were sure.
Help-rejecting Complaining – a person become upset or otherwise elicits supporting actions
form other people. When helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered, however, he/she reject
this and return to his/he complaint.
• Idealization – it is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of the
limitations of a desired thing. We also tend to idealize those things that we have chosen or
acquired. The opposite of Idealization is Demonization, where something that is not desired
or disliked has its weak points exaggerates and its strong points played down
Identification – it occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality such that
he/she appears to be more like other people. This process may be to copy specific people or it
may be to change to an idealized prototype.
Intellectualization – this refers to a ‘flight into reason’, where the person avoids uncomfortable
emotions by focusing on facts and logic. The situation is treated as an interesting problem that
engages the person on a rational basis, whilst the emotional aspects are completely ignored as
being irrelevant.
Introjection – introjection occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other
people who seem better able to cope with the situation than we do.
Passive Aggressive – a person who uses passive-aggressive method to cope with stress does this
by ‘attacking’ other through passive method. Passive aggression often appears when a person is
asked to do something which he/she wants to avoid for some reason.
• Post-traumatic Growth – an individual who has suffered a traumatic experience somehow
finds way to turn it into something good.
Projection – when a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project these onto other
people, assigning the thoughts or feelings that he/she need to repress to a convenient alternative target.
Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other people with which we are uncomfortable.
Provocation or Free-floating – when a person feels stresses, his/her way to avoid dealing with the real issues
is to provoke other into some kind of reaction. The attention can then be put on the other person and away the
originator’s stress.
Reaction Formation – occurs when a person feels an argue to do or say something and then actually does or
says something that is effectively the opposite of what he/she really wants. It also appears as defense against a
feared social punishment.
Rationalization – when something happens that we find difficult to accept, then we will make up a logical
reasons why it has happened. We rationalize to ourselves. We also find it very important to rationalize to other
people, even those we do not know.
Regression – it involves taking the positions of a child in some problematic situation, rather than acting in a
more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations, with greater levels of stress potentially
leading to more overt regressive acts.
• Repression – it involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible areas of the
subconscious mind. Thus, when things occur that we are unable to cope with now, we push them away,
either planning to deal with them at another time or hoping that they will fade away on their own accord.
Self-harming – the person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself on some way or
otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.
Somatization – occurs where a psychological problems turns into physical and subconscious
symptoms. This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems and worse.
Sublimation – it is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This
can simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work. Many
sports and games are sublimations of aggressive argues, as we sublimate the desire to fight into
the ritualistic activities.
Suppression – this is where the person consciously and deliberately pushed down any thought
that leads to feelings of anxiety. Actions that take the person into anxiety-creating situations may
also be avoided.
Substitution – this takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something that
does not lead to discomfort.
• Symbolization – it is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct symbols.
Symbols are often physical items, although there may also be symbolic acts and metaphoric
ideas.
Trivializing – when we are faced with disappointment over something that is important to us, we
are faced with the problem of having our expectations and predictions dashed. We may even have
told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that we have not gained
what we expected. One way that we trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off.
Undoing – it refers to performance of an act to ‘undo’ a previous unacceptable act or thought.
Confession is a form of undoing, including that done is a church to a priest or secret admission.
• Positive Coping – there are a number of approaches that we can take to cope in a positive way
with problems, including:

Immediate Problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the immediate cause of our
difficulty.
Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that the problem will never recur.
Benefit-finding: Looking for the foo things amongst the bad.
1. Spiritual Growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way to grow “spiritually” or
emotionally.
MENTAL DISORDER AND
CRIMINALITY
CHAPTER III
 LESSON 1: Mental Disorder

What is Mental Disorder?

A mental disorder is a broad term used to group physical and
psychological symptoms that cause abnormal thoughts and behaviors. Mental
disorders are more commonly referred to as mental illness. These illness cause
abnormal behavior that is disruptive to a person’s life. Mental disorder maybe
associated with the brain, but they have more in common with other bodily
illness that they do differences.
 Causes of Mental Disorder
The most common model used by
psychologist to explain why mental
disorders occur called the
biopsychosocial model. If you break
that word to its parts it simply means
that biological, psychological and
social factors all contribute to
mental disorders.
 LESSON 2: Neurosis and Psychosis
What is Neurosis?
Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorder involving distress but either
delusions or hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially accepted norms.

Neurosis is also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those

suffering from it are said to be neurotic. It involves impaired social, intellectual and/or
vocational functioning without disorganization of personality or loss of contact with
reality.
The symptoms of neurosis are the following:

Anxiety Reaction – anxiety reaction has diffused fearfulness, tension, and restlessness with
sometimes snowball into episodes of panic.
Dissociative Reaction – dissociative reaction is a massive repression or dissociation of
certain aspect of experience or memory varying from sleepwalking to amnesias and multiple
personality disturbances.
Conversion Reaction – conversion illustrates symbolic resolution of conflict that imitates the
effects of physical illnesses like paralysis, blindness, anesthesia, etc.
Phobic Reaction – phobic reaction refers to intense, irrational fear of specific objects or
events that may have a symbolic significance on the afflicted invididual.
Obsessive-Reaction – this reaction has repetitive, irrational thoughts (obsessions) and/or
actions (compulsions) which usually involve some symbolic effort at conflict resolution.
• Depressive Reaction – refers to depression, usually accompanied by guilt, feelings of
inferiority and anxiety.
 Common Form of Neurosis
Anxiety – manifested through apprehension, tension, and uneasiness from anticipation of danger the source of which is largely unknown or unrecognized.
1. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – people who suffer from this have unwanted, intrusive and receptive thoughts or behaviors.
2. A. Obsession (Thoughts) – when a person cannot stop himself from thinking about something or someone.

3. B. Compulsion (Action) – when a person cannot stop himself from doing something.

4.
Example of Compulsion
Arithomania – the impulse to count anything.
Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor.
Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill.
Kleptomania – the impulse to steal.
Megalomania – the impulse to fame or power.
Pyromania – the impulse to set fire.
• Suicidal mania – the impulse to take one’s life.
Phobia – an intense, unrealistic fear of a specific situation or
activity or object.

Types of Phobia Acrophobia – high places

Agoraphobia – open space and market places
Malgophobia – pain
Astrophobia – storms, thunder, and lightning
Gynophobia – fear of dogs
Claustrophobia – closed places
Hematophobia – fear of blood
Mysophobia – contamination or germs
Monophobia – being alone
Nyctophobia – darkness
Oclophobia – crowds
Hydrophobia – water
Pathophobia- disease
Pyrophobia – fire
Syphilophobia- syphilis
• Zoophobia – animal or some particular
 What is Psychosis?
Psychosis is an abnormal condition of the mind, and is a generic psychiatric
term for a mental state often described as involving a “loss of contact with
reality”.
Disorganization of personality marked by impaired vocational and social
functioning and intellectual deterioration. It has the following
characteristics: disorientation of time, place and/or person: delusion (false
belief); hallucination (false perception); bizzare behavior; inappropriate
emotional responses; distortion of thinking, association, and judgement.
The symptoms of psychosis are the following:

Involuntary Reaction – it demonstrates severe depression during the involution period

without previous history of psychosis.
Affective Reaction – there is a presence of inappropriately exaggerated mood and marked
change in activity level with associated thought disorder.
Manic-Depression Reaction – it shows cyclical disturbances involving various combinations
of or alternation between excitement and delusional optimism on the one hand and
immobilizing, delusional depression on the other.
1. Schizophrenic Reaction – these reaction are bizzare behavior; disturbances of thought and
reality testing emotional withdrawal; and varying levels of psychotic thinking and behavior
 Kinds of Schizophrenia
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia
• If a person has paranoid schizophrenia, he or she:
• Is very suspicious of others.
• Has a great scheme of persecution at the root of the behavior.
• Hallucinates and delusions which are also the symptoms of this type of
schizophrenia.
• Displays the psychotic symptoms.
2. Residual Schizophrenia
Residual schizophrenia is usually:
Expressed through a person’s being not motivated or interest in
everyday life.
• Advised when an individual has been through at least one episode of
schizophrenia (6 months) but then “recover”.
•
• 3. Disorganized Schizophrenia
• This schizophrenia is characterized by:

Person is incoherent verbally and to his/her feeling.

• Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to the situation.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia
A person diagnosed with catatonic schizophrenia is:
Extremely withdrawn, negative, isolated, and has obvious psychomotor
disturbances.
The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated purposeless
movement.
• Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility.

5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
People with undifferentiated schizophrenia exhibit the symptoms of
more than one of the above-mentioned types of schizophrenia, but without
a clear predominance of a particular set of diagnostic characteristics. This
is used when the patient’s symptoms clearly point to schizophrenia but
are so clouded that classification into the different types of schizophrenia
is very difficult.
 Comparison between Neurosis and
Psychosis
NEUROSIS PSYCHOSIS
1. Is associated with anxiety and 1. Is associated with hallucinations and
phobia. delusions.
2. Corresponding mental disorders 2. Corresponding mental disorder include
include anxiety disorder, eating schizophrenia, maniac depressive disorder, and
disorders, and phobias. dissociative identity disorder.
3. Neurotic people are more in 3. Can lead to lost contact with reality.
touch with reality. 4. Can be caused by organic problems with the
4. Is rarely connected with organic brain.
changes inside the brain.
 LESSON 3: Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety is a psychological disorder that involves excessive levels of
negative emotions, such as nervousness, tensions, worry, fright, and anxiety.
It is a generalized feeling of apprehensions, fear, or tensions that may be
associated with a particular object or situation or may be free-floating, not
associated with anything specific. Anxiety can cause such distress that it
interferes with a person’s ability to lead a normal life.
 Difference between Anxiety and Fear
Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the
cause is either not readily identified or perceived to be
uncontrolled or unavoidable, whereas, Fear is an emotional and
psychological response to a recognized external threat or a
response to a real danger or threat.
 Symptoms of Anxiety Disorder
Symptoms vary depending on the type of Feeling of panic, fear, and uneasiness,
anxiety disorder but general symptoms Uncontrollable, obsessive thought,
include: Repeated thoughts or flashbacks of traumatic
experiences,
Ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand
washing,
Cold or sweaty hands and or/feet,
Shortness of breath,
Palpitations,
An inability to be still and calm,
Dry mouth
Numbness or tingling in the hand or feet,
Nausea,
Muscle tension, and
• Dizziness.
 Three Types of Anxiety according to
Freud
Reality Anxiety – refers to fear of real dangers in the external world.
Neurotic Anxiety – refers to fear that instincts will get out of control
and cause the person to do something for which he or she will be
punished.
1. Moral Anxiety – is the fear of the conscience. People with well-
developed superegos tend to feel guilty by which they have been
raised.
 LESSON 4: Mood Disorder
Mood disorders are disorders characterized by extreme and
unwanted disturbances in feeling or mood. These are major
disturbances in one’s condition or emotion, such as depression
and mania. It is otherwise known as affective disorder.
 Types of Mood Disorder
1. Bipolar Disorder – in bipolar disorder, formerly known as
maniac-depression, there is swings in mood form elation
(extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness) with no
discernable external cause.
Two Phases of Bipolar
a. Maniac Phase – during the manic phase of this disorder, the patient may
show excessive, unwarranted excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They
may also show poor judgment and recklessness and may be argumentative.
b. Depressive Episode – the other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive
episode. Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are lethargic.
During bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show irritability and
withdrawal.
2. Depressive Disorder – is when the person experiences extended,
unexplainable periods of sadness.

Types of Depressive Disorder

Major Depressive Disorder – a person suffering from major depressive
disorder is in a depressed mood for most of the day, nearly every day or
has lost interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities, for a period of at
least two weeks.
Single Episode – single episode depression is like major depression only
it strikes in one dramatic episode.
1. Recurrent – recurrent depression is an extended pattern of depressed
episodes. Depressed episodes can include any of the features of major
depressive disorder.
 LESSON 5: Personality Disorder
Personality disorders are chronic maladaptive cognitive-
behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into the
individual’s personality and that are troublesome to others or
whose pleasures are either harmful or illegal.
Paranoid Personality Disorder – it is characterized by
suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-
importance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of
one’s own mistakes.
Schizoid Personality Disorder – this is characterized by the inability to form
social relationship and lack of interest in doing so. The person seem to express
their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called “loners”.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder – it is characterized by reclusiveness, over
sensitivity, avoidance or communication and superstitious thinking is common.
Histrionic Personality Disorder – it is characterized by immaturity, excitability,
emotional instability and self-dramatization.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder – it is self-importance and pre-occupation
with receiving attention. The person usually expects and demands special
treatment from others and disregarding the rights and feelings of other.
• Borderline Personality Disorder – it is characterized by instability reflected
in drastic mood shifts and behavior problems. The person usually displays
intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive,
unpredictable, and periodically unstable.
Avoidant Personality Disorder – it is characterized by hypersensitivity to
rejection and apprehensive alertness to any sign of social derogation. Person is
reluctant to enter into social interaction.
Dependent Personality Disorder – it is characterized by extreme dependence on
other people – there is acute discomfort and even panic to be alone. The person
lacks confidence and feels helpless.
Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder – it is characterized by being hostile
expressed in indirect and non-violent ways. They are so called “stubborn”.
• Compulsive Personality Disorder – it is characterized by excessive concern
with rules, order, and efficiency that everyone does things their way and an
ability to express warm feeling. The person is over conscientious, serious and
with difficulty in doing things for relaxation.
 LESSON 6: Dissociative Disorder
Dissociative disorder refers to disorders in which, under stress, one loses the
integration of consciousness, identity, and memories of important personal events.
This is formerly called as multiple personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder.
These include four recognized varieties:

1. Psychogenic Amnesia
It is also known as Dissociative Amnesia is the temporary or permanent loss of part or
all of the memory. When this is due to extreme psychosocial stress, it is labelled
psychogenic amnesia. This stress is most often associated with catastrophic events.
Four Sub-categories of Psychogenic Amnesia

Localized Amnesia – this is most often an outcome of a particular event. The disease renders the afflicted
unable to recall the details of a usually traumatic event, such as a violent incestuous rape. This is
undoubtedly the most common type of amnesia.
Selective Amnesia – as its name implies, this is similar to localized amnesia except that the memory
retained is very selective. Often a person can remember certain general occurrences of the traumatic
situation, but not specific parts which make it so.
1. Generalized and Continuous Amnesia – these fewer common forms of amnesia exists when a person
either forgets the details of his/her entire lifetime, or as in the case of continuous amnesia, he/she can’t
recall the details prior to a certain point in time, including the present.
2. Psychogenic Fugue
It is also known as Dissociative Fugue. Psychogenic fugue is simply the addition
to generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem or location. In highly
uncommon cases the person may create an entirely new life (fugue means
flight).

3. Multiple Personality Disorder

It is also known as Dissociative Identity Disorder. It is defined as the
occurrence of two or more personalities within the same individual, each of
which during sometime in the person’s life is able to take control. This is not
often a mentally healthy thing when the personalities vie for control.

4. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
This is the continued presence of feelings that the person is not himself/herself or
that he/she can’t control his/her own actions. This is labelled as disorder when it is
recurrent and impairs social and occupational function.
 LESSON 7: Sleep Disorder
A sleep disorder is a condition that frequently impacts your ability to get enough quality sleep. While it’s normal to
occasionally experience difficulties sleeping, it’s not normal to occasionally experience difficulties sleep. While it’s normal to
occasionally experience difficulties sleeping, it’s not normal to regularly have problems getting to sleep at night, to wake up
feeling exhausted, or to feel sleepy during the day. Symptoms can differ depending on the severity and type of sleeping
disorder. They may also vary when sleep disorders are a result of another condition. However, general symptoms of sleep
disorders include:
Difficulty falling or staying asleep
Daytime fatigue
Strong urge to take naps during the day
Irritability or anxiety
Lack of concentration
• Depression
 Types of Sleep Disorder
1. Insomnia
Insomnia refers to the inability to fall asleep or to remain sleep. It can be caused by jet lag, stress
and anxiety, hormones, or digestive problems. It may also be symptoms of another condition.
Insomnia can be very problematic for your overall health and quality of life, potentially causing:
Depression,
Difficulty concentrating,
Irritability,
Weight gain, and
• Impaired work or school performance.
 Types of Sleep Disorder
2. Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea is characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep. This is a serious medical condition
that causes the body to take in less oxygen. It can also cause you to wake up during the night.
3. Parasomnias
Parasomnias are a class of sleep disorder that cause abnormal movements and behaviors during
sleeps. They include:
Sleepwalking (somnambulism),
Sleep Talking (somniloquy),
Groaning,
Nightmares,
Bedwetting, and
• Teeth grinding or jaw clenching
 Types of Sleep Disorder
4. Restless Leg Syndrome
Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is an overwhelming need to move the legs. The urge is
sometimes accompanied by a tingling sensation in the legs. While these symptoms can occur
during the day, they most prevalent at night.

5. Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is characterized by “sleep attacks” that occur during the day. This means that
you will suddenly feel extremely tired and fall asleep without warning. The disorder can also
cause sleep paralysis, which may make you physically unable to move right after waking up.
 LESSON 8: Sexual Disorder or Sexual
Dysfunction
Sexual dysfunctions are disorders related to a particular phase of
the sexual response cycle. Sexual disorder includes problems of
sexual identity, sexual performance, and sexual aim.
 Symptoms of Sexual Dysfunction
In Men: In Women:

Inability to achieve or maintain an erection Inability to achieve orgasm.

suitable for intercourse (erectile dysfunction). Inadequate vaginal lubrication before and during
intercourse.
Absent or delayed ejaculation despite
• Inability to relax the vaginal muscles enough to
adequate sexual stimulation (retarded allow intercourse.
ejaculation).
In Men and Women:
• Inability to control the timing of Lack of interest in or desire for sex.
ejaculation (early or premature
Inability to become aroused.
ejaculation).
• Pain with intercourse.
 Major Categories of Sexual Disorder

I. Sexual Dysfunction
II. Paraphilias
III. Gender Identity Disorder
Category I. Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual dysfunction is a persistent or recurrent problem that causes marked distress
and interpersonal difficulty and that may involve any or some combination of the
following: sexual arousal or the pleasure associated with sex, or orgasm.

Types of Sexual Dysfunction

A. Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire
1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder – it is marked by lack or no drive or interest in sexual activity. It is
characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.
2. Sexual Aversion Disorder – it is characterized by a desire to avoid genital contact with a sexual partner. It
refers to persistent feeling or fear, anxiety, or disgust about engaging in sex.
B. Dysfunction of Sexual Arousal
1. Male Erectile Disorder – it refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an erection (also called impotence).
2. Female Sexual Disorder – It refers to none responsiveness to erotic stimulation both physically and
emotionally (also called frigidity).
C. Dysfunction of Organism
Premature Ejaculation – it is the unsatisfactory brief period between the beginning or sexual stimulation and the occurrence
of ejaculation.
Male Organismic Disorder – it refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual intercourse.
1. Female Orgasmic Disorder – it refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or during sexual
intercourse.
2.
D. Sexual Pain Disorder
Vaginismus – it is the involuntary muscles spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and sexual
intercourse.
3. Dyspareunia – it refers to painful coitus that may have either an organism or psychological basis.
4.
E. Hyper Sexuality
Nymphomania (or furor uterinus) – a female psychological disorder characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession
which sex.
5. Satyriasis – in males, the disorder is called satyriasis.
Category II. Paraphilias
Paraphilias is a rare mental health disorder term recently used to indicate sexual arousal
in response to sexual objects or situation that are not part of societal normative
arousal/activity patterns, or which may interfere with the capacity for reciprocal affectionate
sexual activity.

Common Forms of Paraphilia

1. Exhibitionism
This is also known as flashing, is a behavior by a person that involves
the exposure of private parts of his/her body to another person in a
situation when they would not normally be exposed.
Types of Exposure
Flashing – it is the displaying of the bare buttocks by a woman with an up-and-down lifting of the skirt
and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his/her genitals.
Mooning – it refers to the displaying of the bare buttocks while bending down by pulling-down of trousers
and underwear. This act is more often done for the sake of humor and/or mockery than for sexual excitement.
Anasyrma – it refers to the lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose genitals.
Martymachlia – is a paraphilia which involves sexual attraction to having others watch the execution of a
sexual act.

2. Fetishism
People with a fetish experience sexual urges and behavior which are
associated with non-living objects. For example, the object of the fetish
could be an article of female clothing, like female underwear. Usually the
fetish begins in adolescence and tends to be quite chronic into adult life.
Types of Fetishism

Sexual Transvestic Fetishism (Cross Dressing) – it begins in adolescence, usually around the
onset of puberty. Most practitioners are male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or seeing
female clothing. Lingerie (bras, panties, girdles, corsets, and slips), stockings, shoes, or boots
may all be the fetishistic object.
Foot Fetishism – it is pronounced fetishistic sexual interest among human. A foot fetishist can be
sexually aroused by viewing, handling, licking, sniffing or kissing the feet and toes of another
person, or by having another person doing the same his/her own feet.
Ticking Fetishism – a sexual fetish related to gaining a specific sexual thrill from either tickling
a sex partner or being subjected to tickling themselves, usually to the point of helpless laughter.
Often this involves some form of restraint to prevent escape and/or accidentally hurting the
tickler.
1. Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM) – a form of sexual fetishism that has a person getting
aroused by substances applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding,
chocolate sauce, etc. It could also involve wet clothes, or any combination of the above.
Four Major Categories of WAM

Messy – the applying of largely opaque substances not usually used in this
fashion. This includes food, shaving cream and mud. A major subdivision of food
play involves striking people with cream pies much like in silent comedy films.
Wet – the major varieties are of images of people in completely soaked clothing,
usually involving full clothing ensembles.
Quicksand – images of people sinking in quicksand. In drawn images, the stage
where female characters sinks up to their chests and their breast are up in
response is a favourite.
1. Underwater – also called aquaphilia. It involves images of people swimming
or posing underwater. Some subjects of this category are underwater fashion,
scuba, simulated drowning and underwater sex.
3. Frotteurism (Fottage)
Frotteurism is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by rubbing one’s genitals
against other in public places or crowds or sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of
their body against or non-consenting unfamiliar woman.

4. Scatologia
It is called Coprolalia, deviant sexual practice in which sexual pleasure is obtained through the
compulsive use of obscene language. The affected person commonly satisfies his desires through
obscene telephone calls, usually to strangers.

5. Necrophilia
Necrophilia is also called thanatophilia and necrolagnia, is the sexual attraction to corpses.

6. Coprophilia
Coprophilia also called scatophilia or scat, is the paraphilia involving sexual pleasure from feces.
7. Zoophilia
Zoophilia is the practice of sex between humans and animal (also known as bestiality). A person
who practices zoophilia is known as zoophile.

8. Urophilia (Urolagnia)
A paraphilia of the fetishistic/talismaniac type in which sexuoerotic arousal and facilitation or
attainment of orgasm is responsive to being urinated upon and/or swallowing urine

9. Mysophilia
Mysophilia is obtaining sexual arousal and gratification by fifth or a filthy surrounding. Put
simply, this is getting horny from smelling, chewing or rubbing against dirty underwear.

10. Hypoxyphilia
Hypoxyphilia is the desire to achieve an altered stare of consciousness as an enhancement to the
experience of orgasm. In this disorder, the individual may use a drug such as nitrous oxide to
produce hypoxia, or “high” due to a lack of oxygen to the brain.
 Category III. Gender Identity Disorder
(Transsexualism)
Gender Identity Disorder refers to a disturbance of gender identification in
which the affected person has an overwhelming desire to change their
anatomic sex or insists that they are of the opposite sex, with persistent
discomfort about their assigned sex or about filling its usual gender role; the
disorder may become apparent in childhood or not appear until adolescent or
adulthood.
 Categories of Sexual Abnormalities
A. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:
Heterosexual – this refers to a sexual desire towards the opposite sex. This is normal sexual behavior, socially
and medically acceptable.
Homosexual – this refers to a relationship or having a sexual desire towards members of his/her own gender. The
term homosexual can be applied to either a man or woman, but female homosexuals are usually called lesbians.

Kind of Homosexual
Overt – persons who are conscious of their homosexual cravings, and who make no attempts to disguise their
intention. They make advances towards members of their own gender.
Latent – persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in that direction but are
3. Infantosexual – this refers to a sexual desire towards an immature person such a pedophilia.
4. Bestosexual – this refers to a sexual gratification towards animals. This is similar to bestiality and
zoophilia.
5. Autosexual (Self Gratification or Masturbation) – it is a form of “self-abuse” or “solitary vice”
carried without the cooperation of another person or the induction of a state of erection of the genital
organs and the achievement of orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation.
Types of Masturbation
Conscious Type – the person deliberately resorts to some mechanical means of producing sexual
excitement with or without orgasm. In male, masturbation is made through: manual manipulation to
the point of emission, the ejaculation produced by rubbing of his sex organ against some part of the
female body without the use of the hand. In female, masturbation is made by manual manipulation of
clitoris and introduction of penis-substitute.
1. Unconscious Type – the release of sexual tension may come about via the mechanism of
nocturnal stimulation with ot without emission, which may also be as “masturbation equivalent”.
6. Gerontophilia – this refers to a sexual desire with elder
person.
7. Necrophilia – this refers to a sexual perversion characterized
by erotic desire or actual sexual intercourse with a corpse.
8. Incest – this refers to sexual relations between persons who, by
reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry.
 B. Sexual Abnormalities as to Instinctual
Strength of Sexual Urge:
1. Over Sex:
Satyriasis – this refers to an excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse. The person is called Satyr.
Nymphomania – this refers to the strong sexual feeling of women, the person is called Nymp but is
commonly called hot or fighter.
2. Under Sex:
Sexual Anesthesia – this refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during sexual act in
women.
Dyspareunia – it refers to the painful sexual act in women.
Vaginismus – it refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act.
 C. Sexual Abnormalities as to Mode of Sexual
Expression or Sexual Satisfaction:
1. Oralism – this refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification. This includes any of the following:

Fellatio (Irrumation) – the female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue couples with the act
sucking the sexual organ.

Cunninglingus – the sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the external female genitalia.

Anilism (Anilingus) – it is a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives excitement by licking the anus of another person of either sex.

2. Sado-masochism – this refers to a painful or cruel act as a factor for gratification. The example of this is flagellation, it is a sexual deviation
associated specifically with the act of whipping or being whipped.

Sadism – this refers to a form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of pain on another is necessary or sometimes the sole factor in sexual
enjoyment.

Masochism – this refers to the attainment of pain and humiliation from the opposite sex as the primary factor for sexual gratification.
3. Fetishism – it is a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual
stimulation and/or gratification
 D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the
Body:
Sodomy – this refers to a sexual act through anus of another human being.
Uranism – this refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering,
fondling with the breast, licking parts of the body, etc.
Frottage – it is a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive
desire to rub his sex organ against some part of another.
1. Partialism – it is a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special
affinity to certain parts of the female body. Sexual libido may develop in the
breast, buttock, foot, leg, etc. of women.
 E. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual
Stimulus:
Voyeurism – it is a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion
to peep to see persons undress or perform other personal activities. The
offender is sometimes called “Peeping Tom”. Usually, after peeping, the
person masturbated in excess.
1. Mixoscopia – it refers to perversion wherein sexual pleasure is attained
by watching couple to undress or during their sex intimacies.
 F. Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex
Partner:
Triolism – it is a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are
participating in the sexual orgies. The combination may consist of two men
and a woman or two women and a man. Troilist (a person) becomes aroused
and gratified by the “sharing”.
1. Pluralism – it is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person
participated in the sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform
sexual act in a room and they may even agree to exchange partners for
“variety sake” during “sexual festival”.
 G. Sexual Abnormalities as to Sexual
Reversal:
Transvestism – it is a form of deviation wherein a male individual derives pleasure from
wearing the female apparel. This condition is found sometimes in females who desire to dress
themselves in male attire. A female transvestite may imagine that she possesses a penis.
Transexualism – the dominant desire in some person to identify themselves with the
opposite sex as completely as possible to discard forever their anatomical sex refers to
Transexualism.
1. Intersexuality – it is a genetic defect wherein an individual shoe intermingling, in
varying degrees, of the characteristics of both sexes including physical form, reproductive
organs, and sexual behavior.
 What is Intersexuality?
Intersexuality is the condition in which an individual has both
male and female anatomical characteristics to varying degrees or
in which the appearance of the external genitalia is ambiguous or
differs from that characteristic of the gonadal or genetic.
Classification of Intersexuality
Gonodal Agenesis – the sex organs have never developed.
Gonodal Dysgeness – the external sexual structures are present but at
puberty the testes or the ovaries fail to develop.
True Hermaphroditism – a state of bisexuality, having both ovaries and
testicles. The nuclear sex is usually female. The character may be neutral or
whichever is dominant.
1. Pseudohermaphrodite – the sex organ is anatomically of one sex but
the sex character is that of the opposite sex.