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Errors and Uncertainty in Measurements

The document discusses various types of errors and uncertainties in measurements. It defines systematic, random, and total errors. It explains how to estimate random uncertainties using statistics like mean, standard deviation, and confidence intervals. For measurements involving multiple variables, it introduces the propagation of uncertainty using the root sum squares method to determine the combined uncertainty based on the uncertainties of individual variables.

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Mehwish Israr
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145 views14 pages

Errors and Uncertainty in Measurements

The document discusses various types of errors and uncertainties in measurements. It defines systematic, random, and total errors. It explains how to estimate random uncertainties using statistics like mean, standard deviation, and confidence intervals. For measurements involving multiple variables, it introduces the propagation of uncertainty using the root sum squares method to determine the combined uncertainty based on the uncertainties of individual variables.

Uploaded by

Mehwish Israr
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Errors and Uncertainty in

Measurements
Rounding off and significant figures
 The number of digits can be reduced by a
method called `rounding'.
 For example, if the distance is measured as
2.1451m and it is required to quote the
precision to three significant figures, the
value becomes 2.15m.
Observed value Rounded value
3.05 3.0
3.15 3.2
3.25 3.2
3.35 3.4
3.33 3.3
3.36 3.4
Significant Figures
 In physics the precision of the numerical values
is an important concept. We will say more about
this now.
 From the point of view of experimental sciences,
the three numbers 3, 3.0, and 3.00 are different
from significant figure and precision perspective.
 For example, the value 3.00 tells that the number
could be some number between 3.005 and 2.995.
The relative precision of this number is
 Relative precision in 3.00 = (0.005/3.00)*100 = 0.17%
 Relative precision in 3 = (0.5/3.00)*100 = 17%
Types of Errors
Difference between measured result and true value.
 Illegitimate errors
 Blunders resulting from mistakes in procedure. You must
be careful.
 Computational or calculational errors after the experiment.
 Bias or Systematic errors
 An offset error; one that remains with repeated
measurements (i.e. a change of indicated pressure with the
difference in temperature from calibration to use).
 Systematic errors can be reduced through calibration
 Faulty equipment--such as an instrument which always reads
3% high
 Consistent or recurring human errors-- observer bias
 This type of error cannot be evaluated directly from the
data but can be determined by comparison to theory or
other experiments.
Types of Errors (cont.)
 Random, Stochastic or Precision errors:
 An error that causes readings to take random-like values
about the mean value.
 Effects of uncontrolled variables

 Variations of procedure

 The concepts of probability and statistics are used to study


random errors. When we think of random errors we also
think of repeatability or precision.
Bias, Precision, and Total Error
Total Error

Bias Error

Precision
Error

X True X measured
Uncertainty Analysis
 The estimate of the error is called the uncertainty.
 It includes both bias and precision errors.
 We need to identify all the potential significant errors

for the instrument(s).


 All measurements should be given in three parts
 Mean value
 Uncertainty
 Confidence interval on which that uncertainty is based

(typically 95% C.I.)


 Uncertainty can be expressed in either
absolute terms (i.e., 5 Volts ±0.5 Volts) or in
percentage terms (i.e., 5 Volts ±10%)
(relative uncertainty = DV / V x 100)
 We will use a 95 % confidence interval throughout this
course
Use Statistics to Estimate Random Uncert.
 Mean: the sum of measurement values divided by
the number of measurements.
1 N
x   xi
N i 1
 Deviation: the difference between a single result and
the mean of many results.
d i  xi  x
 Standard Deviation: the smaller the standard
deviation the more precise the data 1
1 2 2
 Large sample size è    xi  x
n 
1
 Small sample size (n<30) 1
 2 
 x i  x 
2
 Slightly larger value è s 
n  1
The Population
 Population: The collection of all items
(measurements) of the group. Represented by a large
number of measurements.
 Gaussian distribution*

3 - 2 - x  2 3

x i  x  1 n 68.3% of the time


xi  x  2 n 95.4% of the time
x i  x  3 n 99.7% of the time
 Sample: A portion of (or limited number of items in)
a population.
 *Data do not always abide by the Gaussian distribution. If
not, you must use another method!!
If you cannot use Statistics to Estimate Random
Uncertainty -- i.e. only one sample
 Use the instrument precision error as a
last resort
Propagation of Error
 Used to determine uncertainty of a
quantity that requires measurement of
several independent variables.
 Volume of a cylinder = f(D,L)
 Volume of a block = f(L,W,H)
 Density of an ideal gas = f(P,T)

 Again, all variables must have the


same confidence interval.
RSS Method (Root Sum Squares)
 For a function y = f(x1,x2,...,xN), the RSS uncertainty is:

  f  2   f 
2
 f 
2

 u RSS    x1     x2   ...    xN  


  x1    x2    xN  
 First determine uncertainty of each variable in the
form ( xN ± DxN)
 Use previously established methods, including bias
and precision error.
Example Problem: Propagation of Error
 Ideal gas law: P

RT
 Temperature
 T±DT How do we
estimate the error
 Pressure
 P±DP in the density?

 R=Constant
Apply RSS formula to density relationship:
2 2 2 2
 ρ    ρ   1   P 
  Δ p    Δ T    Δ P    
Δ ρ RSS
 p   T   R T   R T   2
Δ T 

Apply a little algebra: P



RT

2 2
  p   T 
     
  p   T 

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