TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II

BUDDHI RAJ JOSHI

LECTURER, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
POKHARA UNIVERSITY
 1.3 Traffic Control Devices

1. TRAFFIC SIGNS
2. TRAFFIC SIGNALS
3. ROAD MARKINGS
4. TRAFFIC ISLANDS
 TRAFFIC SIGNS
Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above
roads to give instructions or provide information to road users. They are
of great help in regulating traffic by imparting message to the drivers
about the need to stop , give way and limit their speeds. Traffic signs can
be grouped into several types. For example, the 
Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals (1968), which on 30 June
2004 had 52 signatory countries, defines eight categories of signs.
 1. TRAFFIC SIGNS
A. Danger warning signs
B. Priority signs
C. Prohibitory or restrictive signs
D. Mandatory signs
E. Special regulations signs
F. Information, facilities, or service signs
G. Direction, position, or indication signs
H. Additional panels
DANGER WARNING SIGNS
In the United States, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand signs are categorized as follows:
• Regulatory signs
• Warning signs
• Guide signs
• Street name signs
• Route marker signs
• Expressway signs
• Freeway signs
• Welcome signs
• Informational signs
• Recreation and cultural interest signs
• Emergency management (civil defense) signs
• Temporary traffic control (construction or work zone) signs
• School signs
• Railroad and light rail signs
• Bicycle signs
 1.2 Traffic Signals
* At intersections where there are a
large number of crossing and right-
turn traffic, there possibility of
several accidents as there cannot be
orderly movements.
* On cross roads with two-lane
two-way traffic, there are 16
crossing conflicts as illustrated in
Figure.
• The problem of such conflicts at the intersections gains more
significance as the traffic volume increases.
• In such situations the earlier practice has been to control the traffic with
the help of traffic police who stops the vehicles on one of the roads
alternately and allows the traffic stream of the other road to cross or
take right turn.
• Thus the crossing streams of traffic flow are separated by ‘time-
segregation’.
• In bigger cities, a large number of police personnel are required
simultaneously to control the traffic during peak hours at most of the
junctions with heavy traffic flow.
• Therefore traffic signals are made use of to perform this function of
traffic control at road intersections.
• Traffic signals are automatic traffic control devices which could
alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections
using red and green traffic light signals as per the pre-determined
time settings.
• The main requirements of traffic signal are to:
(i) Draw attention of the road users
(ii) Enable them to understand the meaning of the light signal
(iii) Provide sufficient time to respond and
(iv) Ensure minimum waste of time.
ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS:
 Provide orderly movement of traffic at the intersection.
 The quality of traffic flow is improved by forming compact platoons of
vehicles, provided all the vehicles move at approximately the same speed.
 Reduction in accidents due to crossing conflict, notably the right angled
collisions.
 Traffic handling capacity is highest among the different types of intersections
at-grade.
 Provide a chance to traffic of minor road to cross the continuous traffic flow of
the main road at reasonable intervals of time.
 Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalized intersection. When the
signal system is properly co-ordinate, there is a reasonable speed along the
major road traffic.
 Automatic traffic signal may work out to be more economical when compared
to manual control.
DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS:
 The rear-end collisions may increase.
 Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control
system.
 Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause
confusion to the road users.
 The variation in vehicle arrivals on the approach roads may cause increase in
waiting time on one of the roads and unused green signal time on other road,
when fixed time traffic signals are used.
 Excessive delay of vehicle may be caused particularly during off-peak hours.
 Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to avoid
delays at signals.
DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN :
 The period of time required for one complete sequence of signal indications is
called ‘signal cycle’.
 The part of the signal cycle time that is allocated to stop the traffic or to allow
traffic movement is called ‘signal phase’.
 The duration of ‘stop’ phase is the red phase and
 The duration of ‘go’ phase is the green phase.
 Any of the division of the signal cycle during which signal indications do not
change is called the ‘interval’.
 The engineer has to design the signal with the sequence and duration of
individual phases to serve all approaching traffic at a desired ‘level of service’.
 The level of service is measured by the vehicle delay, the queue length or the
number of vehicle backed up and the probability of a vehicle entering the
intersection during the first green phase after arrival.
 The capacity of a signalized intersection depends on physical factors of the
roads such as roadway width, number of lanes, geometric design features of
intersection and also the green and red phases of the traffic signal.
 The capacity is also affected by operational and control factors such as number
of turning movement, number and size of commercial vehicles, pedestrian
traffic signal characteristics and abutting land use.
 Amber period is the symbol to alert for red timing to clear vehicle from the
intersection
TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS:
The signals are classified into the following types:
 Traffic control signals
 Pedestrian signal
 Special traffic signal
THE TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNAL: The traffic control signals have three
coloured lights which glow facing each direction of traffic flow namely, red
(STOP), amber (CLEARANCE TIME) and green (GO).
The amber or yellow light allows the ‘clearance time’ for the vehicles which enter
the intersection area by the end of green time to clear off the intersection, before
the change-over to red signal light.
Additional signals showing green lights for separate movements of turning traffic
movements may also be provided, where necessary.
PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS:
 Pedestrian signals may be installed at the intersections controlled by
traffic signals to enable the pedestrians to safely cross the specified
roads;
 In such cases, the pedestrian signals and their timings are interlinked
to operate along with the traffic control signal.
 At certain locations of mid-block stretches of urban roads with high
demand for pedestrian crossing, separate pedestrian signals may be
installed along with appropriate warning and informatory signs.
SPECIAL TRAFFIC SIGNALS:
 Special traffic signals such as ‘flashing beacons’ may be installed at
certain locations in order to warn the traffic of certain situations.
 At flashing red signals, the drivers of vehicles shall stop before
entering the nearest cross walk at an intersection or at a stop line.
 Flashing yellow signals are cautionary signals meant to signify that
drivers may proceed with caution.
TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNALS:
Different types of traffic signals are in use namely,
 Manually operated signals
 Fixed time automatic signals
 Automatic traffic-actuated signals

MANUALLY OPERATED SIGNALS : Each of manually signals is

operated from a salient point at or near the intersection by a traffic
police constable. The signal phases may be varied depending on the
traffic demand at that point of time.
FIXED TIME AUTOMATIC SIGNALS :
 The fixed time automatic traffic signal keeps repeating the same set of signal
phases and the signal cycle time that has been set in the signal controller.
 This type of traffic signal may function satisfactorily at locations where there is
no significant variation in traffic flow on different approach roads.
 In U.S.A. fixed time signals are far more numerous than vehicle-actuated types.
 The timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined based on the traffic
studies and
 they are the simplest and cheapest type of automatic traffic signals which are
electrically operated.
 The main drawback is that when the traffic flow on one road may be almost nil
and traffic on the cross road may be quite heavy, yet the traffic in the heavy
stream will have to keep waiting at red phase.
AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC- ACTUATED SIGNALS :
 Traffic actuated signals are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle
are changed according to traffic demand.
 Vehicle actuated signals, in which the green periods vary and are related to the
actual demands made by traffic.
 This is made possible by installing detectors on all the traffic.
 Vehicle-actuated signals are very popular in U.K.
1. SEMI-ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS:
 In semi-actuated traffic signals the normal green phase of an approach may be
extended up to a certain period of time for allowing a few more vehicles
approaching closely, to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors
installed at the approaches.
 Semi-vehicle-actuated signals, in which the right of way normally rests with the
main road and detectors are located only on the side roads.
2. FULLY ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNAL:
 In fully actuated traffic movements on the basis of demand and pre-determined
programming.
 But these are very costly to be installed at all intersections.

3. MODERN FIXED TIME EQUIPMENTS:

 Modern fixed time equipment's are built for operation with different settings at
certain periods of the day, to cover different conditions.
 This is achieved by providing time switches
SIGNAL DESIGN METHODS: The following methods are suitable for the
traffic signal design
 Trial cycle method
 Approximate method based on pedestrian crossing requirement
 Webster’s method
 Design as per IRC Guidelines
1. TRIAL CYCLE METHOD:
 The 15 minute-traffic counts and on road 1 and 2 are noted during the design peak
hour flow
 Some suitable trial cycle C1 sec is assumed and the number of the assumed cycles
in the 15 minutes or 15 x 60 seconds period is found to be (15 x 60)/C1 i.e.
(900/C1 )
 Assuming an average time headway of 2.5 sec, the green periods and of roads 1 and
2 are calculated to clear the traffic during the trial cycle.

 The amber periods and are either calculated or assumed suitably (3 to 4 seconds)
and the trial cycle length; is calculated, (C1’=G1+A1+G2+A2) sec
 If the calculated cycle length C1’ works out to be approximately equal to the
assumed cycle length C1 the cycle length is accepted as the design cycle. Otherwise
the trials are repeated till the trial cycle length works out approximately equal to the
calculated value.
Example - 1
The 15-minute traffic counts on cross roads 1 and 2 during peak hour are observed
as 178 and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection in the
direction of heavier traffic flow. If the amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds
respectively for the two loads based on approach speeds, design the signal timings
by trial cycle method. Assume average time headway as 2.5 seconds during green
phase.
R1=G2+A2=17.75+2=19.75 sec
R2=G1+A1=22.25+3=25.25 sec
22.25 sec 3 sec 19.75 sec
G1 A1 R1 Road-1

25.25 sec 17.75 sec 2 sec

R2 G2 A2 Road-2

Figure: Phase Diagram

2. APPROXIMATE METHOD:
The following design procedure is suggested for the approximate design of
a two phase traffic signal unit at cross roads, along with pedestrian
signals:
• Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m/sec and the roadway width
of each approach road, the minimum time for the pedestrian to cross each
road is also calculated
• Total pedestrian crossing time is taken as minimum pedestrian
crossing time plus initial interval for pedestrians to start crossing,
which should not be less than 7 sec and during this period when the
pedestrian will be crossing the road, the traffic signal shall indicate red or
‘stop’.
• The red signal time is also equal to the minimum green time plus amber
time for the traffic of the cross road.
Example - 2
An isolated traffic signal with pedestrian indication is to be installed on
a right angled intersection with road A, 18 m wide and road B, 12 m
wide. During the peak our, traffic volume per hour per lane of road A
and road B are 275 and 225 respectively. The approach speeds are 55
and 40 Kmph, on roads A and road B respectively. Assume pedestrian
crossing speed as 1.2 m per sec. Design the timings two-phase traffic
and pedestrian by the approximate method.
AA
1
1
23.5 sec 4 sec 22.5 sec
GA AA RA TSA

17.5 sec 10 sec 22.5 sec

WB CIB DWB PSB

27.5 sec 19.5 sec 3 sec

RB GB AB TSB

27.5 sec 7.5 sec 15 sec

DWA WA CIA PSA

Figure: Phase Diagram

3. WEBSTER’S METHOD OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN:
 It has been found from studies that the average delay and the overall delay
to the vehicles at a signalized intersection very with the signal cycle
length.
 The average delay per vehicle is high when the cycle length is very less, as
a sizable proportion of vehicles may not get cleared during the first cycle
and may spill over to subsequent cycles.
 As the signal cycle time is increased, the average delay per vehicle
decreases up to a certain minimum value and thereafter the delay starts
increasing, indicating that there is an ‘optimum signal cycle time’
corresponding to least overall delay.
 The optimum cycle time depends on the geometric details of the
intersection and the volume of traffic approaching the intersection from all
the approach roads during the design hour.
 Webster’s method of traffic signal design is an analytical approach of
determining the optimum signal cycle time C0, corresponding to minimum total
delay to all the vehicles at the approach roads of the intersection.
 The field work consists of determining the following two sets of values on each
approach road near the intersection:
 (i) the normal flow, q on each approach during the design hour and
 (ii) the ‘saturation flow’, S per unit time
 The normal flow values, q1 and q2 on roads 1 and 2 are determined from field
studies conducted during the design hour or the traffic during peak 15 – minutes
period. The saturation flow of vehicles is determined from careful field studies
by noting the number of vehicles in the stream of compact flow during the green
phases and the corresponding time intervals precisely.
 In the absence of data the approximate value of saturation flow is estimated
assuming 160 PCU per 0.3 meter width of the approach road.
 Based on the selected values of normal flow, the ratio and are determined on the
approach roads 1 and 2.
* In the case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to covert the different vehicle classes in
terms of suitable PCU values at signalized intersection;
* In case these are not available they may be determined separately.
 The normal flow of traffic on the approach roads may also be determined by
conducting field studies during off – peak hours to be design different sets of
signal timings during other periods of the day also, as required so as to provide
different signal settings.
The optimum signal cycle is given by relation:
Where,
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = 2n + R
n = is the number of phases
R = all – red time or red-amber time; (all-red time may also be provided for
pedestrian crossing)
Similar procedure is followed when there are more number of signal phases.

Example - 3
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design period are
400 and 250 PCU per hour; the saturation flow values on these roads are estimated
as 1250 and 1000 PCU per hour respectively. The all-red time required for
pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design two phase traffic signal with pedestrian
crossing by Webster’s method.
 22.5

Ra=Gb+Ab=22.5+2=24.5 sec
Rb=Ga+Aa=29+2=31 Sec
29 sec 2 sec 12 sec 24.5 sec
GA AA R RA Road-A

31 sec 12 sec 22.5 sec 2 sec

RB R GB AB Road-B

Figure: Phase Diagram

4. DESIGN METHOD AS PER IRC GUIDELINES:
 The pedestrian green time required for the major roads are calculated
based on walking speed of 1.2 m/sec and initial walk time of 7.0 sec.
*These are the minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on the minor
and major roads respectively.
 The green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road is increased
in proportion to the traffic on the two approach roads.
 The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 sec each.
 The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle
is determined for each lane of the approach road assuming that the first
vehicle will take 6.0 sec and
* The subsequent vehicles or the PCU of the queue will be cleared at a rate of
2.0 sec.
* The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any of the
approaches is limited to 16 sec.
 The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using Webster’s formula
(explained in method, given above).
- The saturation flow values may be assumed as 1850, 1890, 1950, 2250,
2550 and 2990 PCU per hour for the approach roadway widths (kerb to
median or centre line) of 3.0, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m.
- For widths above 5.5 m, the saturation flow may be assumed as 525
PCU per hour per meter width.
-The lost time is calculated from the amber time, inter-green time and the
initial delay of 4.0 sec for the first vehicle, on each leg.
 The signal cycle time and the phases may be revised keeping in view
the green time required for clearing the vehicles and the optimum
cycle length determined it steps (d) and (e) above.
Example - 4
At a right angled intersection of two roads, Road 1 has four lanes with a
total width of 12.0 m and Road 2 has two lanes with a total width of
6.6m. The volume of traffic approaching the intersection during design
hour are 900 and 743 PCU/hour on the two approaches of Road-1 and
278 and 180 PCU/hour on the two approaches of Road-2. Design the
signal timings as per IRC guidelines.
 TRAFFIC ISLANDS
Traffic Island can be a physical structure or a painted object found on
roads and roadside. The primary purpose of a traffic island is better &
orderly flow of traffic. These are also referred to as channelizers as these
“channelizes” the traffic plying on the road. These may be raised
structures made up of concrete or a physical structure in form of boards,
barricades, traffic cones etc.

It can also be regarded as a physical barrier various shapes for

channeling the flow of traffic and reducing the number of conflict points.
Their proper placement is of great importance and is a must know for a
town planner as it plays an important role in transport planning.
When traffic island is much longer in length than width then
they are instead called traffic medians (a strip in the middle of a
road) serving the function of divider over a much longer
distance.
Example & Use of Traffic Island
The examples include roundabout, triangular traffic islands or other
shape solving the required purpose. They are significant as they allow
easy movement of vehicles along with providing space for proper
queuing of vehicles. They act as lungs for intersections as due to large
number of direction change resulting in increased conflicts. Also, a
traffic island with vegetation over it reduces the carbon footprint for that
intersection.
Design & geometrical considerations of traffic island
1. Shape and size: The shape & size of traffic island is determined on
the basis of function it is meant to serve. Like in case of median its much
longer in length than width because its function is to divide the flow of
traffic. In case of a channalizer the function of traffic island is
to channelized the flow of traffic in a particular direction. These can also
be round like in case or rotatory and roundabout which are used for
giving a larger maneuvering space to drivers.
2. Location: Traffic island can be present on the side of road,
across the road or even in mid way along the road. The
 functional classification of island is the most important
determining factor of the location of an island.
3. Island type: The decision of using a painted, concrete
structure, traffic cone can be chosen as per the economics and
the extent to which these fulfill the requirement. However if the
traffic volume is substantial, concrete structure is generally
used as it forces the user to follow it, painted lines work where
people are law-abiding and the flow of traffic is relatively less.
Classification of Traffic Islands:
There are three main classifications involved based on the purpose they serve. The
purposes served may be more than one depending on their geometry, location, size
and shape.
1. Channelizing Island: These island provides direction to the vehicles. The most
prominent use of this type is at the turning points, these allow smooth and easy
turning of traffic and prevents interference with the other straight moving vehicles.
These are also found where the roads converge or diverge as they helps in reducing
conflict points and allow easy merging and diverging of traffic. 
2. Divisional Island: These constructed along road and elongated
structures which can be considered as median or divider but used to
channelize the traffic moving in the same direction. These are not meant
to aid turning but helps in orderly movement of vehicles and might form
a part of channelizing island which further assist in reducing conflict
points. 
3. Refuge Island: These are large in size and are meant for pedestrians
rather than the vehicles. These are provided to serve as a safe zones for
walkers. These are raised structures large enough for a person or a group
of people to stand. These can be located on a mid section of a road at
point of pedestrian crossing as these provide a safe and raised surface
where driver can see them and remain alert.