AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I & II

REVIEW
 Scope of Review for
Aircraft Structures I
• Review of Mechanics & Strength
• Section Properties
• Two-force/Three-force Members
• Truss Analysis
• Beam Analysis
• Inertia forces & Load Factors
 Review of Mechanics & Strength
• MECHANICS
• FBD
• Principle Of Transmissibility
• Varignon’s Theorem
• Principle of Statics
• Methods of Analysis of Trusses
• Space Analysis
• STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• Axial Stress
• Factor of Safety
• Margin of Safety
• Shear & Bending Moment
Diagrams
 Fundamental Concepts
• Structural system
–Any deformable solid body w/c is
capable of carrying loads &
transmitting these loads to other
parts of the body
• Parts
–Beams, plates, shells
• Bar elements
–One-dimensional structural
members w/c are capable of
carrying & transmitting bending,
shearing, torsional, & axial loads or
a combination of the three
• Axial rods or two-force members
–Bars w/c are capable of carrying
axial loads only
• Trusses
–Structural systems constructed
entirely of axial rods
• Plate elements
–Two-dimensional extensions of bar
elements
Figure: Bar elements
a) General bar
b) Axial rod
c) Torsional load
• Membranes
–Plates made to carry only in-plane
axial loads
• Shear panels
–Plates capable of carrying only in-
plane shearing loads frequently
found in missiles, aircraft wings &
tail surfaces
• Shells
–Curved plate elements w/c occupy
a space
• Typical examples of shells
–Fuselages
–Buildings domes
–Pressure vessels
Figure: Plate Elements
a) General plate element
b) Membrane element
c) Shear panel
 Load classification
• Surface loads
–Loads w/c are produced by surface
contacts
• Examples: dynamic & static
pressures
• Concentrated loads
–The area of contact is very small
• Distributed loads
–The area of contact is large
• Body loads
–Loads w/c depend on body volume
• Examples: inertial, magnetic &
gravitational forces
Figure: concentrated & distributed
loads
• Actual loads
• Idealized loads
• Wing pressure loads
• Dynamic loads
–Loads w/c are time-dependent
• Static loads
–Loads independent of time
• Thermal loads
–Loads created on a restrained
structure by a uniform and/or non-
uniform temperature change
 Figure:
• S = axial load
• M x  T  torsion load
• M y & M z  bending moments
• Vy & Vz  shear loads
 Figure:
a) Hinge support
b) Hinge-roller support
c) Fixed support
d) Fixed-roller support
• Reactions
– Forces induced at point of
supports
• Hinge support
– Designed to allow only rotation at
the point of connection
• Hinge-roller support
–Allows rotation & a translation in
only the x-direction
• Fixed-support
–Designed to provide restraints
against rotation & all-translations
• Statically determinate structures
– External reactions can be obtained by
utilizing only the static equations of
equilibrium
• Statically indeterminate structures
– External reactions cannot be obtained
by utilizing only the static equations of
equilibrium
– Commonly referred to as redundant
structures
 Section Properties
• Area
• Centroids, Center of Gravity
• Moment of Inertia
–Moment of Inertia of an Area
–Radius of Gyration
–Parallel Axis Theorem
–The Parallel Axis Theorem for
Masses
–Moments of Inertia of Airplanes
–Example Problems
•1. Area
• =
2. Centroid
•
•
•3.  Center of Gravity

•
4. Moment of Inertia
5. Parallel Axis Theorem

Ī = Ic – Ad2
 Example problems:
• Locate the centroid ӯ of the
composite area shown, and then
determine the moment of inertia of
this area about the centroidal ẋ-axis.
• Ans. ӯ = 1.83 in.;   𝐼 𝑥 ′ =33.72 𝑖𝑛 4
• Determine the centroid & the
moment of inertia of the shaded
area shown about the x-axis
•  

• Ans. ӯ = 4.57 in.;

 Two-force/three-force members
• Frames
–Structures designed to support
loads
• Machines
–Structures designed to transmit &
alter the effect of forces
• Two-force members
–Members w/c resists forces acting
at only two points
• Three-force members
–Members subjected to three or
more forces applied at different
positions
• The frame in the figure supports the
50-kg cylinder. Determine the
horizontal & vertical components of
reaction at A & the force at C.
••  Ans.
• Determine the horizontal & vertical
components of force w/c the pin at C
exerts on member BC of the frame
shown in the figure.
Ans.
 
 Truss Analysis
• Truss Structure
– A framed or jointed structure made
up of columns and ties, the whole
structure being designed to act a
beam. The members of the truss
form a series of rigid triangles or
frames.
–A structure w/c is composed
entirely of two-force members
–The number of members & the
number of joints in a truss is given
by the relation:
• m = 2j - 3
• Column
– A member which is loaded so that
it is compressed axially and
develops
compressive stress. In aircraft
construction, common types of
column used are round or
streamline shaped tubes; and
some are built up from sheet
metal.
• Tie
– Member subjected to tension load
only. In aircraft construction, ties
are round, square and streamline
tubes, wires, tie rods, and cables.
• Load in Trusses
–Applied forces and moments
–Reactions at the supports
–Axial loads in truss members
• Truss Analysis
–Method of Joints
–Method of Sections/Moments
–Method of Shear
 Method of Joints
• Draw the FBD of a joint having at
least one known force & at most two
unknown forces (if this joint is at one
of the supports, then it may be
necessary to calculate first the
external reactions at the supports
• Use solution of equilibrium of con-
current force systems
• Using the calculated results, continue
to analyze each of the other joints.
Designate whether the member is
tension or a compression member.
Be sure to choose a joint having at
most two unknowns & at least one
known force.
• Determine the axial stress of each
members
• Determine the factor of safety of
each members
• Determine the factor of safety of the
entire structure (if necessary)
 Method of Sections
• Free-Body Diagram
–Make a decision on how to cut or
section the truss through the
members where forces are to be
determined
– Before isolating the appropriate
section, it may first be necessary
to determine the truss support
reactions
– Draw the FBD of that segment of
the sectioned truss w/c has the
least number of forces acting on
it.
• Equations of Equilibrium
–Moments should be summed
about a point that lies at the
intersection of the lines of action
of two unknown forces, so that the
third unknown force can be
determined directly from the
moment equation
–If two of the unknown forces are
parallel, forces may be summed
perpendicular to the direction of
these unknowns to determine
directly the third unknown force
(Method of Shears)
 Example problems:
• The internal drag truss for the
wing of a light airplane is
subjected to the forces shown.
Each member is a tube w/
outside diameter of 1.5 inches &
0.25 inch thickness w/ maximum
allowable axial stress of 1000 psi.
• Determine (a) the forces; (b) axial
stresses; & (c) the factors of
safety in members CD, CG & DG.
PCD = 30 lbs(T); PCG = 141.42 lbs(T);
PDG = 100 lbs(C)
• The figure shows a typical truss
structure, a light aircraft mount w/c
supports the weight of the engine.
Each member of the truss is a solid
circular tube w/ 2 inches diameter &
a maximum allowable axial stress of
5,000 psi in compression & 6,000 psi
in tension
• Neglecting the weights of each
member, determine:
• Reactions in members 24, 34 & 35.
• Axial stresses in members 24, 34 &
35.
• Factors of safety of members 24, 34
& 35.
• Ans.
• P24 = 3920 lbs; P34 = 5789 lbs; P35 =
9465 lbs
• σ24 = 1248 psi (T); σ34 = 1844 psi
(C); σ35 = 3014 psi (T)
• FS24 = 4.81; FS34 = 3.25; FS35 = 1.66
• The figure shows a typical fuselage
truss structure w/c supports the
loads as shown. Each member of the
truss is a solid circular tube w/ 2
inches diameter & a maximum
allowable axial stress of 500 psi in
compression & 400 psi in tension
A B C

E
D
Neglecting the weights of each
member, determine:
• Reactions R1 & R2.
• Reactions of members AD, BC, BE
and DE.
• Axial stresses of members AD, BC, BE
and DE.
• Factors of safety of members AD, BC,
BE and DE.
• Ans.
• R1 = 1380 lbs; R2 = 540 lbs
• PAD = 96.15 lbs (T); PBC = 648.10 lbs (T);
PBE = 327.35 lbs (T); PDE = 899.30 lbs (C)
• σAD = 30.60 psi (T); σBC = 206.40 psi (T);
σBE = 104.25 psi (T); σDE = 286.40 psi (C)
• FSAD = 13.10; FSBC = 1.90; FSBE = 3.80;
FSDE = 1.75
 Space Structures
••  The equilibrium of any free body in
space is defined by six equations:
••  The components of a force R in space
along three mutually perpendicular
axes, x, y & z, may be obtained from
the following equations:
••  When the three components are
known, the resultant may be
obtained from the following
equation:
••  If the resultant force or one of its
components is found, the remaining
components may be obtained from
the geometric relationships:
 Example Problems
• Find the loads in the two-force members OA,
OB & OC of the structure shown in the figure:
•  Ans.
• The boom is used to support the 75-
lb flower pot shown in the figure.
Determine the tension developed in
wires AB & AC.
••  Ans.
• The 150-lb crate is supported by
cables AB, AC & AD. Determine
the tension in these wires.
Ans. TAB = 161.54 lbs; TAC = 242.31 lbs; TAD
= 346.16 lbs
 Inertia Forces & Load Factors
• Pure Translation
• F = Ma
••  
•
•
 Example Problems
• An airplane equipped with float is
catapulted into the air from a Navy
Cruiser as illustrated in the figure.
The catapulting force P gives the
airplane a constant horizontal
acceleration of 3g.
• The gross weight of the airplane is
9000 lbs and the catapult track is 35
ft long. Find the catapulting force P
and the reactions from the catapult
car. The engine thrust is 900 lbs.
What is the airplane velocity at the
end of the track run?
• Ans. V = 82 ft/sec or 56 mph
• The figure illustrates an airplane
landing on a Navy aircraft carrier and
being arrested by a cable pull T on
the airplane arresting hook. If the
airplane weigh 12,000 lbs and given
a constant acceleration of 3.5g,
• find the hook pull T, the wheel
reaction R, and the distance d
between the line of action of the
hook pull and the airplane c.g. If the
landing velocity is 60 mph, what is
the stopping distance?
• Ans. T = 42700 lbs; R = 19420 lbs; d =
10.9 in.; S = 34.4 ft
 Beam Analysis
• Beam
– A structural element acted upon the
forces or couples in an axial plane
and designed to carry bending and
shear loads.
 Statically Determinate Beams
• Solve the reactions at the supports
• Draw shear diagram
• Apply method of section
• Write equation of shear
• Draw shear diagram
••  Write equations of moment
• Draw bending moment diagram
• Determine maximum bending
moment
• Solve the maximum bending stress

• Determine the factor of safety

 Example problems
• Find the forces at points A, B & C of
the structure of the braced-wing
monoplane shown in the figure. If
the wing-beam has a uniform circular
cross-section of 10 inches diameter,
determine the factor safety if the
allowable bending stress of the beam
is 2000 psi.
• Ans.
• PA = 6873.10 lbs; PB = 9735 lbs; PC
= 6873.10 lbs
• FS = 2.05
••  A high-wing monoplane has a
cantilever wing carrying a uniformly
distributed air loading of of wing
area. The wing has a span of 42 ft, an
aspect ratio of 6 & a taper ratio of
one. The air loading is assumed to be
transmitted to a single wing spar w/c
is connected at two points A & B to
the fuselage.
• Point A is 19 ft from one wing (or
spar) tip & point B is also 19 ft from
the other tip. The cross-section of
the spar is constant throughout the
span & rectangular in shape
measuring 12 inches high by 5 inches
wide.
• Calculate:
• Reactions at points A & B
• Shear & bending moment diagrams
along the spar
• Maximum flexural stress in the spar
• Ans.
• RA = RB = 294 lbs
• σBmax = 252.70 psi
 Statically Indeterminate Beams
• Reactions & moments by three-
moment equation
• Loading, shear & bending moment
diagrams
• Maximum bending moment
• Maximum bending stress
• Factor of safety
 Three-moment Equation
•  
• Where:
 Right-side
Types of Loading A – B span B – C span
Concentrated load anywhere on the span.
Concentrated load at the
midspan.

Uniform load over the entire

span.
Increasing triangular load on the
whole span.

Decreasing triangular load on the

whole span.

Isosceles triangular load over the

entire span.
Moment load at any point on
the span.
General uniform loading.
 Example Problems
• Consider one wing aileron w/
rectangular planform. This aileron w/
constant chord has a span of 6 ft & a
uniform spanwise air load
distribution of 10 lbs/ft. It is
supported by two hinges w/c are
located at the tips of the span.
• For some reasons of effective
control, the aileron will be modified
by extending its span w/ equal
lengths added at the tips & by
installing another hinge at the center
of the span in line w/ the original
two hinges. All three hinges will have
to carry equal loads. Neglect the
weight of the modified aileron.
• Solve for:

• Loads to be carried by each hinge

& length of the extended aileron
span.
• Ans. 28.80 lbs; 1.32 ft
 Torque tubes/thin-walled
• Torque Tubes
• These are sturctures design primarily to
transmit torsion loads due to twisting
moments about their axes.
• Thin-walled Structures
• These consist of a thin-walled structural
member with closed or open sections
that are usually found in Monocoque and
Semi-Monocoque Structures.
• Torque box
• Built of thin walls so as to form a
closed box and designed to resist
torsional loads. It may consist of one
or more compartments called cells.
Each cell is completely enclosed.
• Open Section
• Thin open sections designed to
resist torsional loads and have
various shapes such as angles,
channels. I sections and circular shell
sections. These sections may be
made up of thin sheets or extrusions
formed and joined together to the
desired shape.
 Torque tubes
• Shafts
Tr
 
J o
TL 180
 x
JG 

• Where: for solid circle

• for hollow circle
 Other symmetrical sections
• Rectangular tube  
T  9a  16b 
•  max  for solid
40ab3

• for hollow

• for solid & hollow

 Elliptical Tube

• Where:
Thin-open Rectangular Sections:
 Thin-walled Section
•  Closed Sections/Torque Boxes
• Torque:
• Shear flow:
• Torsional shearing stress:
• Angle of twist:
(constant thickness)

(thickness is not
constant)
 Single-cell Torque box
••  D-section Torque Box
• Torque: ;;
• Shear flow: &
• Torsional Shear Stress:
•
• Angle of Twist:

– Shear Center of D Section:

 Single-cell Torque w/ Two Bending
Materials
••  Torque:

• Shearflow:
;;
••  Torsional Shearing Stress:
•;
 Two-cell Torque box
••  With no bending material present
•Torque:
•Shearflow:
•Torsional Shear Stress:
• Angle of Twist:
• or
•

• And
 With one bending material present
(Front Spar)
••  Torque:
• Shear flow: ;
••  Torsional Shear Stress:

• Angle of Twist:
• or

&
 With two bending materials
present (Front & Rear Spar)
••  Torque:
• Shear flow: ;
• &
••  Torsional Shear Stress:

•;
•Angle of Twist:
or

&
 Example problems:
••  A 24S-T extrusion of the shape
shown in the figure has dimensions
of Find the shearing stress & the
angle of twist if the section resists a
torque of 100 in-lb & has a length of
10 in.
••  Ans.
• The section of a wing torque box has
an area of 200 square inches and a
skin with circumference of 75 inches
and thickness of 0.05 inch. A
clockwise torque of 10,000ft-lbs
applied to the torque box whose
length is 7ft. The modulus of rigidity
of the material is 4,000,000 lbs per
inch2
• Find:
• Shear flow and shear stress in the
skin
• Angle to twist (degree) of the
torque box.

• Ans.
 Joints & Fittings
• Fittings
• Designed to resist the high
concentrated loads & to transfer
them to the spars, from w/c the
loads are distributed to the sheet
& stringers.
 Fitting design loads
• Limit loads
• Maximum loads w/c a flight
vehicle may be subjected to
during its lifetime when carrying
out the required ground & flight
operations
• Ultimate or design loads
• Limit loads multiplied by a factor
of safety
• Fitting factor
• 1.15 to 1.20
• Bearing factor
• 2.0 or more
• Bolted or riveted joints
•  

• Average Stress
••  Margin of Safety (MS)

• Failure by bolt shear

• Failure in bearing
••  Failure by shear tear-out

Where:
• x = ab
••  Failure in Tension

Where:
P is the load per rivet
S is the rivet spacing
 Example problems
• The figure shows a single pin fitting.
The lug material, bolt & bushing are
aluminum alloy heat treated w/
allowable stresses as follows: Ft =
62,000 psi, Fs = 35,000 psi & Fbr =
72,000 psi.
• The ultimate or design loads are
5800 lbs in tension & 16700 lbs in
compression. A fitting factor of 1.15
& a bearing factor of 2.0 are used.
Find the margins of safety for the
fitting for various types of failure.
 Some previous board problems
••  A stretching force of 10,000 N is
applied at the end of a rod 12 cm in
diameter. The ultimate strength of
this rod is 12,000 N/. Is the rod safe
under the given load?
••  Given is a tube under a torsional load
of 10,000 in-lbs. The section of the
tube is closed semi-circle w/ 6-in.
radius consisting of a semi-circular
web 0.036 in. thick & a straight (flat)
web 0.064 in. thick. The modulus of
rigidity is Solve for the shear stress
in each web.
••  An airplane weighing 6000 is flying
horizontally at a velocity of 224 m/s.
When the pilot pulls upward into a
curved path w/ 750 m radius, the
lines of action of the lift & the
horizontal tail load (parallel to the
weight) are 3 cm & 83 cm aft the
airplane center of gravity,
respectively.
• A simplified airplane landing gear
unit w/ all members & loads
confined to one plane is as shown in
the figure. The landing gear oleo
strut is braced by struts BF & ED, w/c
are pinned at each end. Support at C
is of the roller type where no vertical
reaction is produced.
• A landing load of 10,000 lbs is
applied through the wheel axle.
Required:
• Find the load in the brace struts
• Find the reaction at C.
••  An aircraft structural member has
circular section tube w/ outside
diameter of 5 cm & thickness of
0.25cm. This member is subjected to
axial tensile load of . Determine:
• Cross-sectional area
• Tensile stress
• An airplane landing on an aircraft is
being arrested by a cable
pull(directed downward 10° from the
surface of the carrier) on the
airplane arresting hook. For landing
speed of 63mph, the airplane is
decelerated at a constant rate of 4g.
• The arresting cable used can
withstand a maximum load of 300,00
lbs. Solve for:
• Stopping distance of the airplane.
• Weight of the airplane to allow a
margin of safety of 5 for the cable.
••  A lift strut supporting a wing spar is
designed to withstand a maximum
maneuvering load of 6000 in tension
w/ a factor of safety of 3. The strut
has a circular tube section having a
thickness-to-outside diameter ratio
of one to ten.
 `
••  The material used has an ultimate
tensile strength of 4,500 . Calculate:
• Margin of safety of the strut.
• Strut outside diameter (cm).